A Comparative Analysis of Television and Virtual Social Networks on Attitudes Toward Extramarital Relationships: A Case Study of Married Women in Mashhad
Subject Areas : Social issues and injuries related to women and the family
sepideh barghchi
1
,
hamed bakhshi
2
*
,
Masoud Imanian
3
1 - Ph.D Student, Department of Social Sciences, Islamic Azad University, Quchan Branch, Quchan, Iran.
2 - Associate Professor, Tourism Sociology Research Group, Tourism Research Institute, Academic Center for Education, Culture and Research (ACECR), Mashhad, Iran.
3 -
Keywords: Extramarital Relationships, Media Consumption, Virtual Social Networks, Television, Vignette.,
Abstract :
A Comparative Analysis of Television and Virtual Social Networks on Attitudes Toward Extramarital Relationships: A Case Study of Married
Women in Mashhad
Sepdieh Barghchi*
Hamed Bakhshi**
Masoud Imanian***
This study investigates the influence of media consumption on attitudes toward extramarital relationships among married women in Mashhad, Iran. In contemporary society, mass media, including satellite television and virtual social networks, frequently portray extramarital relationships in an appealing manner, often overlooking their negative consequences. Drawing on media and sociological theories such as Social Learning, Cultivation, and Social Cognition, repeated exposure to such content may contribute to the normalization of extramarital relationships. Utilizing a survey method with a researcher-designed questionnaire, this study examines the relationship between media consumption and attitudes toward extramarital relationships. The statistical population comprised married women aged 20–65 in Mashhad, with a random sample of 400 participants drawn from 20 neighborhoods. Attitudes, as the dependent variable, were assessed using eight vignette-based scenarios. Data analysis was conducted using SPSS version 25.0 and R version 4.3.2, The findings reveal a positive association between virtual social network use and permissive attitudes toward extramarital relationships, contrasted by an inverse relationship with television consumption. These results underscore the need for educational and realistic media content addressing the consequences of extramarital relationships.
Keywords: Extramarital Relationships, Media Consumption, Virtual Social Networks, Television, Vignette
Introduction
Extramarital relationships, defined as romantic or sexual relationships outside the marital framework, have significant emotional, social, and economic implications for individuals, families, and communities, making them a critical focus of sociological and psychological research. In the contemporary era, media consumption—encompassing television and virtual social networks—has emerged as a pivotal factor shaping attitudes toward such relationships. Media often glamorize or normalize extramarital relationships, potentially diminishing their moral stigma. This study examines the differential impact of television and virtual social network consumption on attitudes toward extramarital relationships among married women aged 20–65 in Mashhad, Iran. Grounded in a comprehensive theoretical framework and employing a survey methodology with a vignette-based approach, the research provides insights into how media influences social norms and values within a culturally specific context. This study integrates multiple theoretical perspectives to elucidate the relationship between media consumption and attitudes toward extramarital relationships:
- Cultivation Theory (Gerbner, 1976): This theory posits that prolonged exposure to media content shapes individuals’ perceptions of social reality. Frequent depictions of extramarital relationships as commonplace or desirable may normalize such behaviors, reducing their perceived moral transgression.
- Social Learning Theory (Bandura, 1986): This framework suggests that individuals acquire behaviors and attitudes by observing media characters. Portrayals of extramarital relationships with positive outcomes or minimal consequences may foster more permissive attitudes among viewers.
- Uses and Gratifications Theory (Rubin, 2009): This theory emphasizes that individuals actively select media content to meet psychological or social needs. Those dissatisfied with their marital relationships may gravitate toward media portraying extramarital relationships as a means of emotional or sexual fulfillment, reinforcing permissive attitudes.
- Framing Theory (Entman, 1993): Media frames influence how audiences interpret issues. Romanticized or justificatory portrayals of extramarital relationships may lead to moral disengagement, where individuals downplay the ethical implications of such behaviors.
- Moral Foundations Theory (Haidt, 2012): This theory argues that moral judgments are based on five foundations: care/harm, fairness/cheating, loyalty/betrayal, authority/subversion, and sanctity/degradation. Media content prioritizing certain foundations (e.g., care over loyalty) may shift moral boundaries, influencing attitudes toward extramarital relationships.
This integrated framework provides a robust lens for examining how media consumption shapes attitudes through normalization, modeling, need fulfillment, narrative framing, and moral realignment.
The study aims to:
- Investigate the relationship between media consumption (television and virtual social networks) and attitudes toward extramarital relationships.
- Examine the influence of different media content types (e.g., social media posts, television programs) on these attitudes.
- Explore the moderating role of socio-cultural factors, such as age and residential area, in the impact of media consumption.
- Offer evidence-based recommendations for media policy and social interventions to mitigate the negative consequences of extramarital relationships.
Methodology
The study employed a survey-based approach, utilizing a researcher-designed questionnaire to collect data from 400 married women aged 20–65 in Mashhad, Iran, in year 2022. A multi-stage cluster sampling method was used, with 20 neighborhoods selected through population-weighted randomization to ensure representativeness. The sample size was calculated using Cochran’s formula, with iterative sampling to account for the unknown variance of the dependent variable (attitudes toward extramarital relationships).
Measurement of Variables
- Attitudes Toward Extramarital Relationships: Given the sensitive nature of the topic, attitudes were measured indirectly using eight vignettes depicting scenarios involving extramarital relationships (e.g., loneliness, emotional deprivation, forced marriage). Respondents rated their agreement with four statements per vignette (e.g., “I sympathize with her,” “Her actions were wrong”) on a scale from “completely disagree” (0) to “completely agree” (4). The vignettes were selected through a rigorous Thurstone scaling process, involving 15 judges who evaluated 20 initial vignettes for intensity and ambiguity. The final eight vignettes yielded a composite attitude score ranging from 0 to 128, scaled to 0–100 for interpretation. The scale demonstrated high reliability (Cronbach’s α = 0.953) and construct validity (CFI = 0.978, RMSEA = 0.079, SRMR = 0.031).
- Media Consumption: Respondents reported their usage of various media, including virtual social networks (Instagram, WhatsApp, Telegram, Twitter), television, satellite TV, films, music, radio, books, magazines, and newspapers. The questionnaire captured the primary media device, content type, and daily usage duration.
Data Analysis
Data were analyzed using SPSS version 25.0 for descriptive and bivariate analyses (e.g., correlation, ANOVA) and R version 4.3.2 with the Lavaan package for structural equation modeling (SEM). Confirmatory factor analysis validated the attitude scale, while SEM tested the conceptual model linking media consumption to attitudes, with age and socio-cultural context as mediators. One-way ANOVA and repeated measures ANOVA examined differences in attitudes across demographic groups and vignette scenarios.
Ethical Considerations
The study adhered to ethical principles, including informed consent, confidentiality, and the right to withdraw. Respondents were informed of the study’s objectives, and data were anonymized to ensure privacy.
Findings
Demographic Profile
All respondents were married women, with 26.4% having less than a high school education, 35.8% high school graduates, 29.0% with associate or bachelor’s degrees, and 8.8% with master’s or doctoral degrees. Approximately 74.8% were housewife, 23.0% were employed, and 2.3% were unemployed, retired, or students.
Attitudes Toward Extramarital Relationships
Scaled attitude scores ranged from 0 to 78.9 (out of 100), with a mean of 27.1 and a variance of 252.5. Attitudes showed no significant correlation with education but exhibited a negative correlation with age (r = -0.14, p = 0.005), indicating that older women held more negative views. Employed women displayed more permissive attitudes (mean = 39.0) than housewife (mean = 33.7), possibly due to workplace interactions normalizing extramarital relationships. Attitudes varied significantly across Mashhad’s neighborhoods, with traditional areas (e.g., Regions 2 and 7) showing more negative attitudes than younger, less traditional areas (e.g., Regions 11 and 12).
Vignette Analysis
The “variety-seeking” vignette received the lowest empathy scores, while “forced marriage” elicited the highest. Repeated measures ANOVA revealed significant differences in empathy across vignettes (p < 0.001), with moral judgments driving empathy levels more than the absence of marital functionality. For instance, scenarios involving severe spousal illness (e.g., Alzheimer’s, paralysis) garnered less empathy than expected, likely due to sympathy for the afflicted spouse.
Media Consumption Patterns
Virtual social networks were the dominant medium (72.5% of respondents), followed by television (39.8%), books/magazines (8.0%), and newspapers (1.0%). Among social network users, WhatsApp (68.6%), Instagram (60.7%), and Telegram (19.0%) were prevalent, with average daily usage of 2.58 hours for Instagram, 1.72 hours for WhatsApp, and 1.80 hours for Telegram. Preferred content included life skills pages (60.8%) and lifestyle content (38.6%) on Instagram.
Relationships Between Media Consumption and Attitudes
- Virtual Social Networks: A positive correlation was found between social network use and permissive attitudes toward extramarital relationships (r = 0.14, p = 0.004), particularly with Instagram (r = 0.16, p = 0.007). Specific activities, such as following life skills channels on Telegram (r = 0.40, p = 0.022) and chatting on WhatsApp (r = 0.20, p = 0.004), were associated with more permissive attitudes, while following sales channels on Telegram (r = -0.41, p = 0.018) correlated with negative attitudes.
- Television: Television consumption was inversely correlated with permissive attitudes (r = -0.22, p < 0.001). Religious programs (r = -0.17, p = 0.036), social documentaries (r = -0.76, p < 0.001), and dramas on the Tamasha network (r = -0.23, p = 0.015) reinforced negative attitudes, while scientific/nature documentaries showed a positive correlation (r = 0.17, p = 0.036).
- Books and Magazines: Reading duration was positively correlated with permissive attitudes (r = 0.32, p = 0.028), except for health-related content, which showed a negative correlation (r = -0.33, p = 0.023).
Structural Equation Modeling
SEM results confirmed significant paths: television consumption positively influenced negative attitudes (β = 0.37, p < 0.001), while virtual social network consumption negatively influenced attitudes (β = -0.41, p < 0.001). The model demonstrated excellent fit (RMSEA = 0.06, CFI = 0.98, SRMR = 0.03).
Discussion and Conclusion
The findings highlight the divergent impacts of television and virtual social networks on attitudes toward extramarital relationships. Virtual social networks, with their interactive and personalized nature, promote permissive attitudes by normalizing extramarital relationships and facilitating interpersonal connections. In contrast, television, as a mass medium with standardized content, reinforces traditional values, particularly through religious and social programming. The vignette-based approach effectively captured nuanced attitudes, revealing that moral judgments significantly influence empathy toward extramarital scenarios. Socio-cultural factors, such as age and neighborhood characteristics, further moderate these effects, underscoring the role of cultural context in shaping media influence. The study emphasizes the need for media literacy programs to foster critical engagement with virtual social network content. Policymakers should prioritize producing educational content that highlights the consequences of extramarital relationships to counter their normalization. Future research should explore additional mediators (e.g., religious beliefs, personality traits) and expand the sample to enhance generalizability. This study provides robust evidence that media consumption significantly shapes attitudes toward extramarital relationships among married women in Mashhad. Virtual social networks promote permissive attitudes, while television reinforces negative ones, with implications for family stability and social policy in Iran’s evolving cultural landscape.
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* Ph.D Student, Department of Social Sciences, Islamic Azad University, Quchan Branch, Quchan, Iran.
spid.barghchi@gmail.com
** Corresponding Author: Associate Professor, Tourism Sociology Research Group, Tourism Research Institute, Academic Center for Education, Culture and Research (ACECR), Mashhad, Iran.
h.bakhshi@acecr.ac.ir
*** Assistant Professor, Department of Social Sciences, Islamic Azad University, Quchan Branch, Quchan, Iran.
Imanian1720@gmail.com
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