A Study and Analysis of Metamorphosis in the Stories and Legends of the Sistan Cultural Region
Subject Areas : Interdisciplinary Literary Studies
1 - Ph.D. in Persian Language and Literaure, Birjand University, Iran.
Keywords: Metamorphosis, mythological motifs, Sistan, stories, legends.,
Abstract :
Indigenous and local tales and legends are among the most enigmatic phenomena in anthropology, brimming with mythological motifs and ancient archetypes. Rooted in each ethnicity's culture, customs, traditions, and environment, these narratives encapsulate one of the most pivotal and significant elements of mythology: metamorphosis, or transformation. This motif manifests in diverse forms across the stories and legends of various cultures and people. Notably, it is a fundamental mythological theme in the stories and legends of the Sistan region, finding reflection in numerous narratives from this area. This study, employing a descriptive-analytical approach, aims to analyze the various types of metamorphosis in the stories and legends of the Sistan cultural region. It further seeks to quantify and qualitatively assess the extent to which these transformations are depicted in these narratives. The findings reveal that Sistani stories and legends predominantly feature two types of metamorphosis: human metamorphosis and the metamorphosis of supernatural beings such as demons or evil spirits. Among these, human metamorphosis exhibits a higher frequency and is more prominently represented in Sistani narratives.
Keywords: Metamorphosis, mythological motifs, Sistan, stories, legends.
Introduction
Mythologies and mythological tales are phenomena that manifest in diverse forms across various human cultures, encompassing a wide array of subjects. A defining characteristic of these narratives is their supernatural and extraordinary nature, often featuring characters, beings, and events that transcend the ordinary. In essence, mythological stories and narratives are composites of concepts and actions presented in extraordinary ways, aiming to reflect the beliefs and ancient paradigms of humankind. Through these narratives, they serve as a mirror to human desires and aspirations, often unattainable ones, which are sometimes manifested in the form of mythological themes related to metamorphosis or transformation.
Metamorphosis, a fundamental concept in mythology, is equivalent to the English terms "Metamorphoses" and "Transformation." It denotes a change in the outward appearance and the very essence or identity of a phenomenon, brought about by supernatural forces. Such transformations are considered extraordinary in any era and beyond the capabilities of ordinary humans. In such instances, an entity transforms, acquiring a new form that might be physically apparent or involve profound internal changes, granting it powers it previously lacked (Rastgar Fasaei, 1383: 44-43).
Myths employ symbolic and metaphorical language to convey their messages, illuminating the position and role of ancient humans in the cosmos and natural phenomena. Embedded within them is evidence of human contemplation: seeking solutions to their weaknesses and limitations, while simultaneously yearning for perfection and the realization of their hopes and dreams (Soltani and others, 1397: 82). Moreover, these myths serve as codes and symbols, signifying rebirth and fluid vitality, reflecting the imaginations, fantasies, literary pursuits, and thought processes of those who created them (Ghobadi, 1392: 74).
Consequently, the phenomenon of metamorphosis is a theme that emerges from various mythological, psychological, and epistemological motivations in the mythological stories and legends of different regions. It is a pervasive theme in such works. Among these, the stories and legends of the Sistan cultural region exhibit extensive manifestations of metamorphosis or transformation. Metamorphosis is a frequent and multifaceted theme in these narratives, encompassing both human and supernatural beings. As a significant component of the mythological foundation of Sistani indigenous stories and legends, this theme is widely represented. Given its prominence in these narratives, this study employs mythological analysis and a descriptive-analytical approach to investigate the various forms of metamorphosis in Sistani stories and legends. The aim is to analyze the frequency and manner in which these transformations appear in these narratives. Based on the foregoing, the primary research questions are:
- What types of metamorphosis are present in Sistani stories and legends?
- What are the most significant and prevalent types of metamorphosis in the stories and legends of the Sistan cultural region?
Methodology
This paper employs a descriptive-analytical approach to investigate the phenomenon of metamorphosis in the stories and legends of the Sistan cultural region. By examining 144 narratives associated with the Sistan cultural sphere, we collected data on motifs related to metamorphosis. Subsequently, using statistical software such as SPSS and Excel, we conducted quantitative analysis to categorize these motifs based on their frequency and distribution. Furthermore, through content analysis and by consulting various sources in the field of mythology, we have provided a detailed analysis of each type of metamorphosis found in Sistani stories and legends.
Findings
Types of Metamorphosis in Sistani Stories and Legends
The findings of this study, based on statistical analysis, reveal two primary categories of metamorphosis in Sistani stories and legends: human metamorphosis and the metamorphosis of supernatural beings.
Human Metamorphosis
A total of 136 motifs related to human metamorphosis and transformation were identified in the analyzed narratives. This category can be further divided into two subcategories:
- Transformation with preserved human essence: In this type, humans acquire extraordinary abilities while retaining their human nature. Examples include transformations involving beauty, ugliness, age, visibility, or fertility. This subcategory accounts for 109 instances.
- Transformation involving a change in essence: In this case, humans transform, changing their form into various animal, inanimate, plant, or natural phenomena. This subcategory comprises 27 instances.
Metamorphosis of Supernatural Beings.
The second category of metamorphosis involves supernatural beings. As depicted in various mythologies, a characteristic feature of supernatural beings is their ability to transform into various forms. This ability empowers them to achieve multiple objectives, such as deceiving humans, aiding others, or concealing their identity. In Sistani narratives, 34 motifs related to the metamorphosis of supernatural beings were identified, primarily involving creatures like Bozlangi (a type of evil spirit), demons, and dragons. Among these, Bozlangi exhibited the highest frequency of transformations with ten instances, followed by demons with seven cases. Other supernatural beings, such as the devil and dragons, had fewer occurrences.
The metamorphosis of supernatural beings in this study can be categorized into six groups: transformation into animals, inanimate objects, plants, humans, natural elements, and other supernatural beings. Based on frequency, the most common transformations were into humans (14 instances) and animals (9 instances).
Conclusion
The findings of this research indicate that metamorphosis is a prominent and recurring motif in the stories and legends of the Sistan region, appearing a total of 170 times in the analyzed corpus. A significant portion of these instances, 136, involve human metamorphosis, while 34 pertain to the transformations of supernatural beings.
Our analysis reveals two primary types of human metamorphosis in Sistani narratives. The first type involves individuals acquiring extraordinary abilities while retaining their human essence, such as gaining beauty, youth, invisibility, or fertility. The second type entails a fundamental shift in form, where humans transform into animals, inanimate objects, plants, or natural phenomena. While the former type is more prevalent, accounting for 109 instances, the latter also holds significance with 27 occurrences.
Supernatural beings in Sistani folklore exhibit a diverse range of transformations, including changes into animals, inanimate objects, humans, and natural elements. Beings such as Bozlangi and demons are frequently depicted as undergoing metamorphosis. These transformations often serve purposes such as deception, assistance, or concealment.
The prevalence and variety of metamorphosis in Sistani folklore reflect a deeper culture and worldview. Through these narratives, the people of Sistan seem to express a desire to transcend the limitations of human existence, to conquer mortality, disease, and ignorance about the future. These stories also reveal a longing to explore new worlds and reach beyond the celestial realm. This longing is often intertwined with a belief in supernatural forces and a desire to escape the harsh realities of life. By reimagining the world and altering the nature of its elements, these narratives reflect a desire to harness nature for human benefit.
In essence, the Sistani people, like many other cultures, have used the motif of metamorphosis in their folklore to grapple with profound existential questions and to express their hopes, fears, and aspirations. Through these narratives, they have created a rich and imaginative world that offers both solace and inspiration.
Resources
Aidenlu, Sajjad (2006) Classification and analysis of epic-mythical and ritual themes and themes in Pahlavi poems after the Shahnameh, PhD dissertation, Persian language, and literature, supervisor Rahman Mushtaq Mehr, Tarbiat Moalem University Azerbaijan, Faculty of Literature and Human Sciences.
Elwell Sutton and Paul Lawrence (1997) Tales of Mashdi Glin Khanum, edited by Ulrich Martsolf, translated by Azar Amirhosseini Nithamer and Seyed Ahmad Vakilian, Tehran, Markaz.
Eliadeh, Mircha (1993) treatise on the history of religions, translated by Jalal Sattari, Tehran, Soroush.
Anjavi Shirazi, Abolqasem (1973) Iranian stories, Tehran, Amirkabir.
Ansari, Zahra, and others (2016) "Human-animal and animal-human representation in the folklore culture of Iranian people", Hormozgan Cultural Research Journal, No. 13, pp. 112-93.
Avesta (2006) two volumes, report and research by Jalil Dostkhah, Tehran, Morvarid.
Iranshah Ibn Abi-al-Khair (1998) Kush-name, by the efforts of Jalal Matini, Tehran, Elmi Publications.
Bahar, Mehrdad (1997) From Myth to history, collected by Abolqasem Esmailpour, Tehran, Cheshme.
----------------------- (2011) Research in Iranian Mythology, Tehran, Ageh.
Pournamdarian, Taqi (2005) The story of the prophets in the Shams universe (mystical explanation and interpretation of the stories in Molvi's ghazals), Tehran, Research Institute of Human Sciences and Cultural Studies.
Tasuji Tabrizi, Abdul Latif (2004) One Thousand and One Nights, two volumes, Tehran, International Center for the Dialogue of Civilizations, Hermes.
Hormati, Hamide and Elham Azarbarzin (2018) "Analysis of the mythic concept of figure-turning in Azerbaijani folk tales", Scientific Quarterly of Commentary and Analysis of Persian Language and Literature Texts (Dehkhoda), 11th Volume, No. 40, Pg. 139 -163.
Hosseini, Maryam and Sara Pourshaaban (2013) "Combined Myths in One Thousand and One Nights", Mystical and Mythological Literature, Volume 8, Number 27, pp. 59-86.
------------------------------------------------- (2013) "Reasons of character transformation in the stories of the One Thousand and One Nights", Literary Text Research Magazine, No. 52, pp. 37 -64.
Khazaei, Hamidreza (2006) Legends of Khorasan, Volume 9, Mashhad, Mahjan.
Khosrow Keykavous (2012) Faramarznameh, by Rostam son of Bahram Tafti, corrected by Mitra Mehrabadi, Tehran, World of Books.
Khammar, Ebrahim (2011) Asoke (ten legends Sistani), Zahedan, Taftan.
Khammar, Gholamhossein and Fatemeh Hossein-Abadi (2012) Childhood stories (Asoke Sistoni) Zahedan, Mobasser.
Darvishian, Ali-Ashraf and Khandan, Reza (1999) The Culture of Iranian Legends, Volume 1, Tehran, Ketab and Farhang.
Deh-Bozorgi, Jila (2008) Epic Themes in Ancient Iranian Texts and its Comparison with Ferdowsi's Shahnameh, Tehran, Amir Kabir.
Zabihnia Imran, Asia and Zahra Pordel (2016) "Types of human
transformations in the written legends of Sistan and Baluchistan", Farhang and Popular Literature, No. 12, pp. 1-24.
Rahimi, Zommrrod (2011) Cultural heritage image of Sistan and Baluchistan, Tehran, Cultural Heritage Organization.
Rahimi, Seyyed Mahdi and others (2019) "Review of mythological elements in Sistani's legend Nahang Bor and Shahzadeh", Mystical and Mythological Literature Quarterly, 16th year, number 58, pp. 125-93.
Rastgar Fasaei, Mansour (2013) Figuring in Mythology, Tehran, Research Institute of Humanities and Cultural Studies.
Rousta, Fereshte, and others (2019) "Elements of transformation in the culture and stories of the people of Bakhtiari, Kohgiluyeh and Boyer Ahmad", the bimonthly magazine of popular culture and literature, 8th year, number 33, pp. 120-93.
Raees Al-Zhakrin, Gholam Ali (1985) Kurnameh, Mashhad, Farhang Sistan.
Zareei, Badrieh (2013) "Man-tree and tree-man portrayal in Hormozgan folk tales", Hormozgan Cultural Research Journal, No. 8 and 9, pp. 1-20.
Zamani, Fatemeh, and others (2023) "Characterization and its mythological elements in the legends of Khorasan (based on four volumes from the ten-volume collection)", bi-monthly culture and popular literature, year 11, no. 50, pp. 63-104.
Soltani, Parisa, and others (2017) "Portraits in the Persian verses of the Ramayana epic", literary essays (Magazine of Mashhad Faculty of Literature and Humanities), 50th edition, number 2, pp. 101-77.
Sistani, Mohammad Azam (2011) Anthropology of Sistan, Sweden, Social Science Center of Afghanistan Academy of Sciences.
Sheikh-Nejad, Mahmoodreza (2012) Sistani legends (narrative of the Sistani people of the Gorgan plain), Gorgan, Nowrozi.
Shakibi Mumtaz, Nasrin and Maryam Hosseini (2012) "Classification of types of hero's birth in myths, legends, folk stories, and fairy tales", Two Quarterly Journal of Popular Culture and Literature, Volume 1, No. ¬ 1, pp. 143-170.
Sadeghi, Mohsen (2015) "Representation of the myth of the animal - bridegroom in a Sufi tale", Literary Critic Quarterly, 9th year, No. 35, pp. 165-183.
Sadeghi-Shahpar, Reza (2009) "Images of saints among miracles and stories of prophets", mystical and mythological literature, 6th volume, number 19, pp. 79-107.
Attar Neishabouri, Faridaldin Mohammad (2012) Tadzkire-ul-Awliya, review, correction of the text, explanations, and lists by Mohammad Istilami, Tehran, Zovar Publications.
Emrani, Gholam-Reza (2013) Sistan literature, Asoke, second volume, Tehran, Daryaft.
Ferdowsi, Abulqasem (1987) Shahnameh, the first volume, by the efforts of Jalal Khaleghi Motlaq, New York, Byblodsa Persia.
---------------------------- (1990) Shahnameh, second volume, by Jalal Khaleghi Motlaq, California and New York, the Persian Heritage Foundation.
---------------------------- (1992) Shahnameh, third volume, by Jalal Khaleghi Mutlaq, California, Iran Heritage Foundation.
Farzi, Farzad, and others (2023) "Representation and metamorphosis of petrification in Kurdish stories and legends", Bimonthly Culture and Popular Literature, 11th year, number 49, pp. 117-148.
Ghobadi, Hossein Ali (2012) "Criticism and analysis of the book The Transformation of Figures in Mythology", Humanities Texts and Programs Research Journal, 13th year, number 1, pp. 57-82.
Qolizadeh, Khosrow (2007) Iranian mythology culture, Tehran, Parse book publishing company.
Cassirer, Ernest (2011) Language and Myth, translated by Mohsen Talasi, Tehran, Morwarid.
Koyaji, Jahangir Kovarji (2001) Foundations of Iran's myth and epic, reported and edited by Jalil Dostkhah, Tehran, Aghaz.
Kikhamqadam, Ahmad (2004) Ancient legends of Nimroz, first volume, Tehran, Mehr Afarin.
------------------------------- (2006) Ancient legends of Nimroz, second volume, Zahedan, Ushida.
------------------------------- (2006) Ancient legends of Nimroz, third volume, Zahedan, Ushida.
------------------------------- (2016) Ancient legends of Nimroz, Volume IV, Zahedan, Ushida.
------------------------------- (2016) Ancient legends of Nimroz, fifth volume, Zahedan, Ushida.
Grimal, Pierre (2013) Greek and Roman Mythology, translated by Ahmed Bahmanesh, Tehran University.
Marzelf, Ulrich (1997) Classification of Iranian stories, translated by Kikavos Jahandari, Tehran, Soroush.
Maseh, Hanri (1978) Iranian Beliefs and Customs, second volume, translated by Mehdi Roshan-Zamir, Tabriz, Institute of History and Culture of Iran.
Hedayat, Sadegh (1965) Zand and Homan Yasen and Ardeshir Babkan's performance, Tehran, Amir Kabir.
Hamilton, Edith (1997) Siri in Greek and Roman mythology, translated by Abdul Hossein Sharifian, Tehran, Asatir.
Henry Hook, Samuel (2012) Mythology of the Middle East, translated by Ali-Asghar Bahrami and Feringis Mazdapour, Tehran, enlighteners and women's studies.
Homer (1999) Odyssey, translated by Saeed Nafisi, Tehran, Scientific and Cultural Publications.
Hines, John (1989) Understanding the Mythology of Iran, translated by Jale Amouzgar and Ahmad Tafzali, Tehran, Babel Library and Cheshme Publishing House.
Uther, Hans-jorg (2004) The Types of International Folktales, Helsinki, Table of Contents.
آیدنلو، سجاد (1386) طبقه¬بندی و تحلیل مضامین و بن¬مایه¬های حماسی- اساطیری و آیینی در منظومه¬های پهلوانی پس از شاهنامه، رساله دکتری، رشته زبان و ادبیات فارسی، استاد راهنما رحمان مشتاق مهر، دانشگاه تربیت معلم آذربایجان، دانشکده ادبیّات و علوم انسانی.
اِلوِل ساتن و پل لارنس (1376) قصّه¬های مشدی گلین خانم، ویرایش اولریش مارتسولف، ترجمه آذر امیرحسینی نیتهامر و سید احمد وکیلیان، تهران، مرکز.
الیاده، میرچا (1372) رساله در تاریخ ادیان، ترجمه جلال ستاری، تهران، سروش.
انجوی شیرازی، ابوالقاسم (1352) قصّه¬های ایرانی، تهران، امیرکبیر.
انصاری، زهرا و دیگران (1396) «دگرگونشدگی انسان- حیوان و حیوان- انسان در فرهنگ افسانههای مردم ایران»، پژوهش¬نامه¬ فرهنگی هرمزگان، شمارۀ 13، صص 93-112.
اوستا (1385) دو جلدی، گزارش و پژوهش جلیل دوستخواه، تهران، مروارید.
ایرانشاه ابن ابی¬الخیر (1377) کوش¬نامه، به کوشش جلال متینی، تهران، علمی.
بهار، مهرداد (1376) از اسطوره تا تاریخ، گردآورنده ابوالقاسم اسماعیل¬پور، تهران، چشمه.
--------- (1391) پژوهشی در اساطیر ایران، تهران، آگه.
پورنامداریان، تقی (1385) داستان پیامبران در کلیّات شمس (شرح و تفسیر عرفانی داستان¬ها در غزل¬های مولوی)، تهران، پژوهشگاه علوم انسانی و مطالعات فرهنگی.
تسوجی تبریزی، عبداللّطیف (1383) هزارویک شب، دو جلدی، تهران، مرکز بین¬المللی گفت¬وگوی تمدّن¬ها، هرمس.
حرمتی، حمیده و الهام آذربرزین (1398) «تحلیل انگاره¬ اسطوره¬ای دگرگونشدگی در افسانه¬های عامیانه¬ آذربایجان»، فصلنامه¬ علمی تفسیر و تحلیل متون زبان و ادبیات فارسی (دهخدا)، دوره یازدهم، شماره¬ 40، صص 139-163.
حسینی، مریم و سارا پورشعبان (1391الف) «اسطوره¬های ترکیبی در هزارویک شب»، ادبیّات عرفانی و اسطوره¬شناختی، دوره¬ هشتم، شماره 27، صص 59-86.
------------------------ (1391ب) «دلایل دگرگونشدگی در داستان¬های هزارویک شب»، مجلّه¬ متن¬پژوهی ادبی، شماره 52، صص 37-64.
خزاعی، حمیدرضا (1385) افسانه¬های خراسان، جلد نهم، مشهد، ماه¬جان.
خسرو کیکاووس (1382) فرامرزنامه، به اهتمام رستم پسر بهرام تفتی، تصحیح میترا مهرآبادی، تهران، دنیای کتاب.
خمر، ابراهیم (1390) آسوکه ده افسانه¬ سیستانی، زاهدان، تفتان.
خمر، غلامحسین و فاطمه حسین¬آبادی (1392) قصّه¬های کودکی (آسوکه¬ سیستونی) زاهدان، مبصر.
درویشیان، علی¬اشرف و رضا خندان (1378) فرهنگ افسانه¬های ایرانی، جلد سوم، تهران، کتاب و فرهنگ.
ده¬بزرگی، ژیلا (1388) مضامین حماسی در متن¬های ایران باستان و مقایسۀ آن با شاهنامۀ فردوسی، تهران، امیرکبیر.
ذبیح¬نیا عمران، آسیه و زهرا پردل (1396) «انواع استحاله¬های انسانی در افسانه¬های مکتوب سیستان و بلوچستان»، نشریه¬ فرهنگ و ادبیّات عامه، شمارۀ 12، صص 1-24.
رحیمی، زمرّد (1381) سیمای میراث فرهنگی سیستان و بلوچستان، تهران، سازمان میراث فرهنگی.
رحیمی، سید مهدی و دیگران (1399) «بررسی بن¬مایه¬های اساطیری در افسانۀ سیستانی نهنگ بور و شهزاده»، فصلنامه¬ ادبیات عرفانی و اسطوره¬شناختی، سال شانزدهم، شماره 58، صص 93-125.
رستگار فسایی، منصور (1383) دگرگونشدگی در اساطیر، تهران، پژوهشگاه علوم انسانی و مطالعات فرهنگی.
روستا، فرشته و دیگران (1399) «بن¬مایه¬های دگرگونشدگی در فرهنگ و داستان¬های مردم بختیاری و کهگیلویه و بویراحمد»، دوماهنامۀ فرهنگ و ادبیات عامه، سال هشتم، شماره¬ 33، صص 93-120.
رئیس¬الذاکرین، غلامعلی (1364) کورنامه، مشهد، فرهنگ سیستان.
زارعی، بدریه (1393) «دگرگونشدگی انسان-درخت و درخت- انسان در قصه¬های عامیانه¬ هرمزگان»، پژوهش¬نامه¬ فرهنگی هرمزگان، شماره¬ 8 و 9، صص 1-20.
زمانی، فاطمه و دیگران (1402) «دگرگونشدگی و بن¬مایه¬های اسطوره¬ای آن در افسانه¬های خراسان (با تکیه بر چهار جلد از مجموعۀ ده¬جلدی)»، دوماهنامۀ فرهنگ و ادبیات عامه، سال یازدهم، شماره¬ 50، صص 63-104.
سلطانی، پریسا و دیگران (1397) «دگرگونشدگی در منظومه¬های فارسی حماسه رامایانا»، جستارهای ادبی (مجلّه دانشکده¬ ادبیّات و علوم انسانی مشهد) دوره¬ پنجاه¬ویکم، شماره 2، صص 77-101.
سیستانی، محمداعظم (2011) مردم¬شناسی سیستان، سوئد، مرکز علوم اجتماعی آکادمی علوم افغانستان.
شیخ¬نژاد، محمودرضا (1391) افسانه¬های سیستانی (روایتی از سیستانی¬های دشت گرگان)، گرگان، نوروزی.
شکیبی ممتاز، نسرین و مریم حسینی (1392) «طبقه¬بندی انواع خویشکاری تولد قهرمان در اسطوره¬ها، افسانه¬ها، داستان¬های عامیانه و قصه¬های پریّان»، دوفصلنامه¬ فرهنگ و ادبیات عامه، دوره¬ اول، شماره¬ 1، صص 143-170.
صادقی، محسن (1395) «بازنمایی اسطورۀ حیوان- داماد در حکایتی صوفیانه»، فصلنامه¬ نقد ادبی، سال نهم، شماره¬ 35، صص 165-183.
صادقی¬شهپر، رضا (1389) «صور نوعیه کرامات اولیا در میان معجزات و قصص انبیا»، ادبیّات عرفانی و اسطوره¬شناختی، دوره¬ ششم، شماره¬ 19، صص 79-107.
عطّار نیشابوری، فریدالدّین محمد (1391) تذکرۀ¬الاولیاء، بررسی، تصحیح متن، توضیحات و فهرست¬ها از محمد استعلامی، تهران، زوّار.
عمرانی، غلام¬رضا (1393) ادبیّات سیستان، آسوکه، جلد دوم، تهران، دریافت.
فردوسی، ابوالقاسم (1366) شاهنامه، جلد اول، به کوشش جلال خالقی مطلق، نیویورک، بیبلودسا پرشیا.
------------- (1369) شاهنامه، جلد دوم، به کوشش جلال خالقی مطلق، کالیفرنیا و نیویورک،the Persian Heritage Foundation.
------------- (1371) شاهنامه، جلد سوم، به کوشش جلال خالقی مطلق، کالیفرنیا، بنیاد میراث ایران.
فرزی، فرزاد و دیگران (1402) «دگرگونشدگی و دگردیسی سنگ¬شدگی در قصه¬ها و افسانه¬های کردی»، دوماهنامه فرهنگ و ادبیات عامه، سال یازدهم، شماره¬ 49، صص 117-148.
قبادی، حسینعلی (1392) «نقد و تحلیل کتاب پیکرگردانی در اساطیر»، پژوهشنامه¬ متون و برنامههای علوم انسانی، سال سیزدهم، شماره¬ 1، صص 57-82.
قلی¬زاده، خسرو (1387) فرهنگ اساطیر ایرانی، تهران، شرکت مطالعات نشر کتاب پارسه.
کاسیرر، ارنست (1390) زبان و اسطوره، ترجمه¬ محسن ثلاثی، تهران، مروارید.
کویاجی، جهانگیر کوورجی (1380) بنیادهای اسطوره و حماسه¬ ایران، گزارش و ویرایش جلیل دوستخواه، تهران، آگاه.
کیخامقدم، احمد (1384) افسانه¬های کهن نیمروز، جلد اول، تهران، مهرآفرین.
------------- (1385) افسانه¬های کهن نیمروز، جلد دوم، زاهدان، اوشیدا.
------------- (1385) افسانه¬های کهن نیمروز، جلد سوم، زاهدان، اوشیدا.
------------- (1396) افسانه¬های کهن نیمروز، جلد چهارم، زاهدان، اوشیدا.
------------- (1396) افسانه¬های کهن نیمروز، جلد پنجم، زاهدان، اوشیدا.
گریمال، پییر (1393) فرهنگ اساطیر یونان و روم، ترجمه احمد بهمنش، تهران، دانشگاه تهران.
مارزلف، اولریش (1376) طبقه¬بندی قصّه¬های ایرانی، ترجمه کیکاووس جهانداری، تهران، سروش.
ماسه، هانری (1357) معتقدات و آداب ایرانی، جلد دوم، ترجمه¬ مهدی روشن¬ضمیر، تبریز، مؤسسه¬ تاریخ و فرهنگ ایران.
هدایت، صادق (1344) زند و هومن¬یسن و کارنامه اردشیر بابکان، تهران، امیرکبیر.
همیلتون، ادیت (1376) سیری در اساطیر یونان و روم، ترجمه عبدالحسین شریفیان، تهران، اساطیر.
هنری هوک، سیموئل (1391) اساطیر خاورمیانه، ترجمه علی¬اصغر بهرامی و فرنگیس مزداپور، تهران، روشنگران و مطالعات زنان.
هومر (1378) اودیسه، ترجمه سعید نفیسی، تهران، علمی و فرهنگی.
هینلز، جان (1368) شناخت اساطیر ایران، ترجمه ژاله آموزگار و احمد تفضّلی، تهران، کتابسرای بابل و نشر چشمه.
Uther, Hans-jorg (2004) the Types of International Folktales, Helsinki, Table of Contents.
