Effect of Carbohydrate, Protein and Their Combined Supplementations on Cycling Performance: A Brief Review
الموضوعات :
Daniel Tarmast
1
,
Asok Kumar Ghosh
2
1 - Assistant Professor, Department of Physical Education & Sport Sciences, Faculty of Humanities, Parand Branch, Islamic Azad University, Parand, Tehran, Iran
2 - Department of Sports Science and Yoga, School of Rehabilitation Sciences and Physical Education, Ramakrishna Mission Vivekananda University, Belur Math, Howrah, West Bengal 711202, India.
الکلمات المفتاحية: Carbohydrate, Protein, Carbohydrate-Protein Ingestion, Cycling,
ملخص المقالة :
This review illustrates the impact of carbohydrate (CHO) and protein (PRO) supplementation on cycling performance. Strategic nutritional planning greatly benefits endurance athletes, particularly cyclists, as it underscores the critical role of macronutrient consumption in improving on the track/road performance and recovery. CHO is the primary energy source for prolonged cycling, as they are crucial for preserving optimal performance by preventing glycogen depletion and delaying fatigue. The efficacy of CHO is significantly influenced by their glycemic index (GI). High-GI CHO offers a rapid energy source that facilitates muscle glycogen resynthesis and sustained performance. Research suggests that high-GI CHO can increase muscle glycogen levels by up to 40% within four hours, underscoring their significance during and after pedaling. PRO, although not the primary energy source, is essential for synthesizing and repairing muscles, particularly during prolonged and intensive cycling. Incorporating essential amino acids to facilitate recovery is imperative, as they aid in muscle protein synthesis and mitigate muscle fatigue. Recent studies have demonstrated that PRO supplements, especially after pedaling, significantly enhance muscle glycogen and protein synthesis replenishment, leading to quicker recovery and improved performance during cycling sessions. The synergistic benefits of the combined supplementation of CHO and PRO are greater than those of each macronutrient alone. This combination improves endurance, delays fatigue, and ensures more efficient recovery by increasing glycogen storage, accelerating recovery, and enhancing muscle protein synthesis. The optimization of the benefits of these supplements is contingent upon the timing, dosage, and composition. Glycogen replenishment and muscle protein synthesis are optimized by consuming CHO and PRO immediately prior to and following exercise. This is particularly true for high-GI carbohydrates, such as glucose, and swiftly assimilated PRO, such as whey. In conclusion, this review provides practical recommendations for cyclists seeking to optimize their nutritional strategies by synthesizing findings from various studies. Cyclists can enhance their overall performance and achieve long-term athletic success by developing effective dietary plans that improve endurance, defer fatigue, and facilitate efficient recovery, facilitated by understanding the complex interactions between these macronutrients.
1. Craig NP, Norton KI. Characteristics of track cycling. Sports Medicine. 2001;31:457-68.
doi: 10.2165/00007256-200131070-00001
2. Vogt S, Schumacher Y, Roecker K, Dickhuth H-H, Schoberer U, Schmid A, et al. Power output during the Tour de France. International journal of sports medicine. 2007;28(09):756-61.
doi: 10.1055/s-2007-964982
3. Atkinson G, Davison R, Jeukendrup A, Passfield L. Science and cycling: current knowledge and future directions for research. Journal of sports sciences. 2003;21(9):767-87.
doi: 10.1080/0264041031000102097
4. Tarmast D, Ghosh AK. The Impact of Carbohydrate, Protein, and Combined Carbohydrate-Protein Supplementation on Muscle Damage and Oxidative Stress Markers During Prolonged Cycling Performance in the Heat. Asian J Sports Med. 2024;15(2):e144084. Epub 2024-08-01.
doi: 10.5812/asjsm-144084
5. Jeukendrup AE. Carbohydrate intake during exercise and performance. Nutrition. 2004;20(7-8):669-77.
doi: 10.1016/j.nut.2004.04.017
6. Camera DM. Evaluating the effects of increased protein intake on muscle strength, hypertrophy and power adaptations with concurrent training: a narrative review. Sports Medicine. 2022;52(3):441-61.
doi: 10.1007/s40279-021-01585-9
7. Place N, Westerblad H. Metabolic Factors in Skeletal Muscle Fatigue. Exercise Metabolism: Springer; 2022. p. 377-99.
doi: 10.1007/978-3-030-94305-9_17
8. Amawi A, AlKasasbeh W, Jaradat M, Almasri A, Alobaidi S, Hammad AA, et al. Athletes’ nutritional demands: a narrative review of nutritional requirements. Frontiers in Nutrition. 2024;10:1331854.
doi: 10.3389/fnut.2023.1331854
9. Williams JH, Batts TW, Lees S. Reduced muscle glycogen differentially affects exercise performance and muscle fatigue. International Scholarly Research Notices. 2013;2013(1):371235.
doi: 10.1155/2013/371235
10. Burke LM, Claassen A, Hawley JA, Noakes TD. Carbohydrate intake during prolonged cycling minimizes effect of glycemic index of preexercise meal. Journal of Applied Physiology. 1998;85(6):2220-6.
doi: 10.1152/jappl.1998.85.6.2220
11. Craven J, Desbrow B, Sabapathy S, Bellinger P, McCartney D, Irwin C. The effect of consuming carbohydrate with and without protein on the rate of muscle glycogen re-synthesis during short-term post-exercise recovery: A systematic review and meta-analysis. Sports Medicine-Open. 2021;7:1-15.
doi: 10.1186/s40798-020-00297-0
12. Jentjens R, Jeukendrup AE. Determinants of post-exercise glycogen synthesis during short-term recovery. Sports Medicine. 2003;33:117-44.
doi: 10.2165/00007256-200333020-00004
13. Chen J, Zhou R, Feng Y, Cheng L. Molecular mechanisms of exercise contributing to tissue regeneration. Signal Transduction and Targeted Therapy. 2022;7(1):383.
doi: 10.1038/s41392-022-01233-2
14. Peake JM, Neubauer O, Della Gatta PA, Nosaka K. Muscle damage and inflammation during recovery from exercise. Journal of applied physiology. 2017. 122(3):559-570.
doi: 10.1152/japplphysiol.00971.2016
15. Sollie O, Jeppesen PB, Tangen DS, Jernerén F, Nellemann B, Valsdottir D, et al. Protein intake in the early recovery period after exhaustive exercise improves performance the following day. Journal of applied physiology. 2018. 125(6):1731-1742.
doi: 10.1152/japplphysiol.01132.2017
16. Pasiakos SM, Lieberman HR, McLellan TM. Effects of protein supplements on muscle damage, soreness and recovery of muscle function and physical performance: a systematic review. Sports medicine. 2014;44:655-70.
doi: 10.1007/s40279-013-0137-7
17. Kumar V, Atherton P, Smith K, Rennie MJ. Human muscle protein synthesis and breakdown during and after exercise. Journal of applied physiology. 2009;106(6):2026-39.
doi: 10.1152/japplphysiol.91481.2008
18. Lin Y-N, Tseng T-T, Knuiman P, Chan WP, Wu S-H, Tsai C-L, et al. Protein supplementation increases adaptations to endurance training: A systematic review and meta-analysis. Clinical Nutrition. 2021;40(5):3123-32.
doi: 10.1016/j.clnu.2020.12.012
19. Tarmast D. Metabolism and nutrients intake in adolescents in exercise: Proteins. The 4th National Conference on Applied Research in Physical Education, Sport & Athletic Science; Tehran, Iran2019. ID: PESSO04_006
20. Jäger R, Kerksick CM, Campbell BI, Cribb PJ, Wells SD, Skwiat TM, et al. International society of sports nutrition position stand: protein and exercise. Journal of the International Society of Sports Nutrition. 2017;14:1-25.
doi: 10.1186/s12970-017-0177-8
21. Ghosh AK, Rahaman AA, Singh R. Combination of sago and soy-protein supplementation during endurance cycling exercise and subsequent high-intensity endurance capacity. International journal of sport nutrition and exercise metabolism. 2010;20(3):216-23.
doi: 10.1123/ijsnem.20.3.216
22. Tarmast D, Ghosh AK, Chen CK. Effect of Iso–Caloric Sago and Soy Supplementations during 90 Minutes Steady–State Cycling on Subsequent 20–km Cycling Time Trial Performance in the Heat. Journal of Sports Physiology and Athletic Conditioning. 2021;2(1):1-15.
doi: 10.61186/jspac.21112.1.2.1
23. Naderi A, Gobbi N, Ali A, Berjisian E, Hamidvand A, Forbes SC, et al. Carbohydrates and endurance exercise: A narrative review of a food first approach. Nutrients. 2023;15(6):1367.
doi: 10.3390/nu15061367
24. Moreno-Pérez D, López-Samanes Á, Larrosa M, Larumbe-Zabala E, Centeno A, Roberts J, et al. Effects of protein–carbohydrate vs. carbohydrate alone supplementation on immune inflammation markers in endurance athletes: a randomized controlled trial. European Journal of Applied Physiology. 2023;123(7):1495-505.
doi: 10.1007/s00421-023-05168-6
25. Berardi JM, Price TB, Noreen EE, Lemon PW. Postexercise Muscle Glycogen Recovery Enhanced with a Carboyhydrate-Protein Supplement. Medicine and science in sports and exercise. 2006;38(6):1106.
doi: 10.1249/01.mss.0000222826.49358.f3
26. Zawadzki K, Yaspelkis 3rd B, Ivy J. Carbohydrate-protein complex increases the rate of muscle glycogen storage after exercise. Journal of applied physiology. 1992;72(5):1854-9.
doi: 10.1152/jappl.1992.72.5.1854
27. Betts JA, Toone RJ, Stokes KA, Thompson D. Systemic indices of skeletal muscle damage and recovery of muscle function after exercise: effect of combined carbohydrate–protein ingestion. Applied Physiology, Nutrition, and Metabolism. 2009;34(4):773-84.
doi: 10.1139/H09-070
28. Hosseini M, Ghasem Zadeh Khorasani N, Divkan B, Riyahi Malayeri S. Interactive Effect of High Intensity Interval Training with Vitamin E Consumption on the Serum Levels of Hsp70 and SOD in Male Wistar Rats. Iranian J Nutr Sci Food Technol 2019; 13 (4) :21-28
29. Ivy JL. Nutrient timing: The future of sports nutrition: Basic Health Publications, Inc.; 2004.
ISBN-13 : 978-1591201410
30. Nielsen LLK, Lambert MNT, Jeppesen PB. The effect of ingesting carbohydrate and proteins on athletic performance: A systematic review and meta-analysis of randomized controlled trials. Nutrients. 2020;12(5):1483.
doi: 10.3390/nu12051483
31. Saunders MJ, Kane MD, Todd MK. Effects of a carbohydrate-protein beverage on cycling endurance and muscle damage. Medicine & Science in Sports & Exercise. 2004;36(7):1233-8.
doi: 10.1249/01.mss.0000132377.66177.9f
32. Holesh JE, Aslam S, Martin A. Physiology, Carbohydrates. StatPearls. Treasure Island (FL) ineligible companies. Disclosure: Sanah Aslam declares no relevant financial relationships with ineligible companies. Disclosure: Andrew Martin declares no relevant financial relationships with ineligible companies.: StatPearls Publishing LLC.; 2024. Bookshelf ID: NBK459280, PMID: 29083823
33. LaPelusa A, Kaushik R. Physiology, Proteins. StatPearls. Treasure Island (FL) ineligible companies. Disclosure: Ravi Kaushik declares no relevant financial relationships with ineligible companies. StatPearls Publishing LLC.; 2024. Bookshelf ID: NBK551511, PMID: 31855355
34. Garcia-Roves P, Terrados N, Fernandez S, Patterson A. Macronutrients intake of top level cyclists during continuous competition-change in the feeding pattern. International Journal of Sports Medicine. 1998;19(01):61-7.
doi: 10.1055/s-2007-971882
35. Cole M, Carter JL, Podlogar T, Fell JM, Gough LA. Macronutrients for Training and Racing. Nutrition and Supplements in Cycling: Routledge; 2024. p. 17-36.
ISBN-13 : 978-103245107
36. Tarmast D. Metabolism and nutrients intake in adolescents in exercise: Carbohydrates. The 4th National Conference on Novel Approaches to Education and Research; Amol, Mazandaran, Iran2019. ID: NERA04_474
37. King AJ, Hall RC. Nutrition and indoor cycling: a cross-sectional analysis of carbohydrate intake for online racing and training. British Journal of Nutrition. 2022;127(8):1204-13.
doi: 10.1017/S0007114521001860
38. Coyle EF, Jeukendrup AE, Oseto MC, Hodgkinson BJ, Zderic TW. Low-fat diet alters intramuscular substrates and reduces lipolysis and fat oxidation during exercise. American Journal of Physiology-Endocrinology And Metabolism. 2001;280(3):E391-E8.
doi: 10.1152/ajpendo.2001.280.3.E391
39. Moitzi AM, Krššák M, Klepochova R, Triska C, Csapo R, König D. Effects of a 10-Week Exercise and Nutritional Intervention with Variable Dietary Carbohydrates and Glycaemic Indices on Substrate Metabolism, Glycogen Storage, and Endurance Performance in Men: A Randomized Controlled Trial. Sports Medicine-Open. 2024;10(1):36.
doi: 10.1186/s40798-024-00705-9
40. Sun F-H, Li C, Zhang Y-J, Wong SH-S, Wang L. Effect of glycemic index of breakfast on energy intake at subsequent meal among healthy people: a meta-analysis. Nutrients. 2016;8(1):37.
doi: 10.3390/nu8010037
41. Zhang J-Y, Jiang Y-T, Liu Y-S, Chang Q, Zhao Y-H, Wu Q-J. The association between glycemic index, glycemic load, and metabolic syndrome: a systematic review and dose–response meta-analysis of observational studies. European journal of nutrition. 2020;59:451-63.
doi: 10.1007/s00394-019-02124-z
42. Jenkins DJ, Wolever T, Taylor RH, Barker H, Fielden H, Baldwin JM, et al. Glycemic index of foods: a physiological basis for carbohydrate exchange. The American journal of clinical nutrition. 1981;34(3):362-6.
doi: 10.1093/ajcn/34.3.362
43. Oba M, Kammes-Main K. Symposium review: Effects of carbohydrate digestion on feed intake and fuel supply. Journal of dairy science. 2023;106(3):2153-60.
doi: 10.3168/jds.2022-22420
44. Ludwig DS, Majzoub JA, Al-Zahrani A, Dallal GE, Blanco I, Roberts SB. High glycemic index foods, overeating, and obesity. Pediatrics. 1999;103(3):e26-e.
doi: 10.1542/peds.103.3.e26
45. Volek J. Enhancing exercise performance: nutritional implications. Exercise and Sport Science. 2000:471-86.
46. O’Reilly J, Wong SH, Chen Y. Glycaemic index, glycaemic load and exercise performance. Sports Medicine. 2010;40:27-39.
doi: 10.2165/11319660-000000000-00000
47. Ludwig DS. Glycemic load comes of age. The Journal of Nutrition. 2003;133(9):2695-6.
doi: 10.1093/jn/133.9.2695
48. Foster-Powell K, Holt SH, Brand-Miller JC. International table of glycemic index and glycemic load values: 2002. The American journal of clinical nutrition. 2002;76(1):5-56.
doi: 10.1093/ajcn/76.1.5
49. Erith S, Williams C, Stevenson E, Chamberlain S, Crews P, Rushbury I. The effect of high carbohydrate meals with different glycemic indices on recovery of performance during prolonged intermittent high-intensity shuttle running. International journal of sport nutrition and exercise metabolism. 2006;16(4):393-404.
doi: 10.1123/ijsnem.16.4.393
50. Coyle EF, Coggan AR, Hemmert M, Lowe RC, Walters TJ. Substrate usage during prolonged exercise following a preexercise meal. Journal of applied physiology. 1985;59(2):429-33.
doi: 10.1152/jappl.1985.59.2.429
51. Coyle EF, Coggan AR, Hemmert MK, Ivy JL. Muscle glycogen utilization during prolonged strenuous exercise when fed carbohydrate. J Appl Physiol (1985). 1986;61(1):165-72.
doi: 10.1152/jappl.1986.61.1.165
52. Burke L. Practical issues in nutrition for athletes. Journal of Sports Sciences. 1995;13(S1):S83-S90.
doi: 10.1080/02640419508732281
53. Burke LM, Collier GR, Davis PG, Fricker PA, Sanigorski AJ, Hargreaves M. Muscle glycogen storage after prolonged exercise: effect of the frequency of carbohydrate feedings. The American journal of clinical nutrition. 1996;64(1):115-9.
doi: 10.1152/jappl.1993.75.2.1019
54. Kushnick MR, Jackson AC, Stamford BA, Venkatachalam M, Zhang G, Hamaker B. Glycemic Response To Fast And Slow Digestible Carbohydrate In High And Low Aerobic Fitness Men, Medicine & Science in Sports & Exercise. 2008;40(5):S455.
doi: 10.1249/01.mss.0000322933.00002.e1
55. Flockhart M, Larsen FJ. Continuous glucose monitoring in endurance athletes: interpretation and relevance of measurements for improving performance and health. Sports Medicine. 2024;54(2):247-55.
doi: 10.1007/s40279-023-01910-4
56. Jeukendrup AE. Carbohydrate feeding during exercise. European Journal of Sport Science. 2008;8(2):77-86.
doi: 10.1080/17461390801918971
57. Wagenmakers A, Brouns F, Saris W, Halliday D. Oxidation rates of orally ingested carbohydrates during prolonged exercise in men. Journal of Applied Physiology. 1993;75(6):2774-80.
doi: 10.1152/jappl.1993.75.6.2774
58. Murray R, Paul GL, Seifert JG, Eddy DE, Halaby GA. The effects of glucose, fructose, and sucrose ingestion during exercise. Medicine and Science in Sports and Exercise. 1989;21(3):275-82. PMID: 2733576
59. Leijssen D, Saris W, Jeukendrup AE, Wagenmakers A. Oxidation of exogenous [13C] galactose and [13C] glucose during exercise. Journal of Applied Physiology. 1995;79(3):720-5.
doi: 10.1152/jappl.1995.79.3.720
60. Jeukendrup A, Gleeson M. Sport Nutrition: Human Kinetics; 2024. ISBN-13 : 978-1718221703
61. Saris W, Goodpaster B, Jeukendrup A, Brouns F, Halliday D, Wagenmakers A. Exogenous carbohydrate oxidation from different carbohydrate sources during exercise. Journal of Applied Physiology. 1993;75(5):2168-72.
doi: 10.1152/jappl.1993.75.5.2168
62. Lugo M, Sherman WM, Wimer GS, Garleb K. Metabolic responses when different forms of carbohydrate energy are consumed during cycling. International Journal of Sport Nutrition and Exercise Metabolism. 1993;3(4):398-407.
doi: 10.1123/ijsn.3.4.398
63. Tarmast D, Ghosh AK, Chen CK. Metabolic Responses to Sago, Soy and Sago+Soy Combined Supplementations during Endurance Cycling Performance Followed by Time Trial Performance in the Heat. International Conference of Sports Science- AESA. 2017;0(1):7.
doi: 10.22631/ijaep.v6i3.176
64. Kenefick RW, Cheuvront SN. Hydration for recreational sport and physical activity. Nutrition reviews. 2012;70:S137-S42.
doi: 10.1111/j.1753-4887.2012.00523.x
65. Thomas DT, Erdman KA, Burke LM. Position of the Academy of Nutrition and Dietetics, Dietitians of Canada, and the American College of Sports Medicine: nutrition and athletic performance. Journal of the Academy of Nutrition and Dietetics. 2016;116(3):501-28.
doi: 10.1016/j.jand.2015.12.006
66. Malone JJ, Hulton AT, MacLaren DP. Exogenous carbohydrate and regulation of muscle carbohydrate utilisation during exercise. European journal of applied physiology. 2021;121:1255-69.
doi: 10.1007/s00421-021-04609-4
67. Tarmast D. Effects of commbined sago-soy supplementation on cycling time trial performance in the heat: Doctorate Thesis at Universiti Sains Malaysia; 2016.
http://eprints.usm.my/id/eprint/41729
68. Moitzi AM, König D. Longer-term effects of the glycaemic index on substrate metabolism and performance in endurance athletes. Nutrients. 2023;15(13):3028.
doi: 10.3390/nu15133028
69. Bourdas DI, Souglis A, Zacharakis ED, Geladas ND, Travlos AK. Meta-analysis of carbohydrate solution intake during prolonged exercise in adults: from the last 45+ years’ perspective. Nutrients. 2021;13(12):4223.
doi: 10.3390/nu13124223
70. Rehrer N, Wagenmakers A, Beckers E, Halliday D, Leiper J, Brouns F, et al. Gastric emptying, absorption, and carbohydrate oxidation during prolonged exercise. Journal of Applied Physiology. 1992;72(2):468-75.
doi: 10.1152/jappl.1992.72.2.468
• 71. Murray R, Paul GL, Seifert JG, Eddy DE. Responses to varying rates of carbohydrate ingestion during exercise. Medicine and Science in Sports and Exercise. 1991;23(6):713-8. PMID: 1886479
72. Mitchell J, Costill D, Houmard J, Fink W, Pascoe D, Pearson D. Influence of carbohydrate dosage on exercise performance and glycogen metabolism. Journal of Applied Physiology. 1989;67(5):1843-9.
doi: 10.1152/jappl.1989.67.5.1843
73. Jeukendrup AE, Wagenmakers AJ, Stegen JH, Gijsen AP, Brouns F, Saris WH. Carbohydrate ingestion can completely suppress endogenous glucose production during exercise. American Journal of Physiology-Endocrinology and Metabolism. 1999;276(4):E672-E83.
doi: 10.1152/ajpendo.1999.276.4.E672
74. Burgess WA, Davis JM, Bartoli WP, Woods JA. Failure of low dose carbohydrate feeding to attenuate glucoregulatory hormone responses and improve endurance performance. International Journal of Sport Nutrition and Exercise Metabolism. 1991;1(4):338-52.
doi: 10.1123/ijsn.1.4.338
75. Casa DJ, Armstrong LE, Hillman SK, Montain SJ, Reiff RV, Rich BS, et al. National athletic trainers' association position statement: fluid replacement for athletes. Journal of athletic training. 2000;35(2):212. PMID: 16558633
76. Coyle EF, Montain SJ. Benefits of fluid replacement with carbohydrate during exercise. Medicine and Science in Sports and Exercise. 1992;24:S324-30. PMID: 1406205
77. Hargreaves M. Carbohydrate ingestion and exercise: effects on metabolism and performance. Chinese Journal of Sports Medicine. 2000;19(2):219-23. [Accessed 15 August 2024]; Available from: https://caod.oriprobe.com//articles/2598592/CARBOHYDRATE_INGESTION_AND_EXERCISE__EFFECTS_ON_METABOLISM_AND_PERFOR.htm
78. Coggan AR, Swanson SC. Nutritional manipulations before and during endurance exercise: effects on performance. Medicine and science in sports and exercise. 1992;24(9 Suppl):S331-5. PMID: 1406206
79. Smith JW, Pascoe DD, Passe DH, Ruby BC, Stewart LK, Baker LB, et al. Curvilinear dose-response relationship of carbohydrate (0-120 g·h(-1)) and performance. Med Sci Sports Exerc. 2013;45(2):336-41. Epub 2012/09/13.
doi: 10.1249/MSS.0b013e31827205d1
80. Pérez-Castillo Í M, Williams JA, López-Chicharro J, Mihic N, Rueda R, Bouzamondo H, et al. Compositional Aspects of Beverages Designed to Promote Hydration Before, During, and After Exercise: Concepts Revisited. Nutrients. 2023;16(1). Epub 2024/01/11.
doi: 10.3390/nu16010017
81. Podlogar T, Bokal Š, Cirnski S, Wallis GA. Increased exogenous but unaltered endogenous carbohydrate oxidation with combined fructose-maltodextrin ingested at 120 g h(-1) versus 90 g h(-1) at different ratios. Eur J Appl Physiol. 2022;122(11):2393-401. Epub 2022/08/12.
doi: 10.1007/s00421-022-05019-w
82. Wei RJ, Orbeta L, Hatamiya NS, Chang CJ. Nutritional strategies for endurance cyclists—periodized nutrition, ketogenic diets, and other considerations. Current Sports Medicine Reports. 2023;22(7):248-54.
doi: 10.1249/JSR.0000000000001085
83. Li G, Li Z, Liu J. Amino acids regulating skeletal muscle metabolism: mechanisms of action, physical training dosage recommendations and adverse effects. Nutrition & Metabolism. 2024;21(1):41.
doi: 10.1186/s12986-024-00820-0
84. Ghosh A, Bin R, Jusoh C. Soy protein supplementation during moderate intensity exercise failed to improve the subsequent 15 min time trial power output in hot environment. Journal of Science and Medicine in Sport. 2010;12:e103.
doi: 10.1016/j.jsams.2009.10.212
85. Moore DR, Sygo J, Morton JP. Fuelling the female athlete: Carbohydrate and protein recommendations. European Journal of Sport Science. 2022;22(5):684-96.
doi: 10.1080/17461391.2021.1922508
86. Drăgan I, Stroescu V, Stoian I, Georgescu E, Baloescu R. Studies regarding the efficiency of Supro isolated soy protein in Olympic athletes. Revue Roumaine de Physiologie (Bucharest, Romania: 1990). 1992;29(3-4):63-70. PMID: 1306084
87. Salem A, Trabelsi K, Jahrami H, Alrasheed MM, Boukhris O, Puce L, et al. Branched-chain amino acids supplementation and post-exercise recovery: an overview of systematic reviews. Journal of the American Nutrition Association. 2024;43(4):384-96.
doi: 10.1080/27697061.2023.2297899
88. Ivy JL. Nutrition before, during, and after exercise for the endurance athlete. Essentials of Sports Nutrition and Supplements. 2008:621-46.
doi: 10.1007/978-1-59745-302-8_27
89. Salter AM, Lopez-Viso C. Role of novel protein sources in sustainably meeting future global requirements. Proceedings of the Nutrition Society. 2021;80(2):186-94.
doi: 10.1017/S0029665121000513
90. Kang J. Nutrition and metabolism in sports, exercise and health: Routledge; 2018. ISBN-13 : 978-0415578790
91. Arabzadeh E, Shirvani H, Ebadi Zahmatkesh M, Riyahi Malayeri S, Meftahi GH, Rostamkhani F. Irisin/FNDC5 influences myogenic markers on skeletal muscle following high and moderate-intensity exercise training in STZ-diabetic rats. 3 Biotech. 2022 Sep;12(9):193. doi: 10.1007/s13205-022-03253-9. Epub 2022 Jul 26.
92. Koopman R, Pannemans DL, Jeukendrup AE, Gijsen AP, Senden JM, Halliday D, et al. Combined ingestion of protein and carbohydrate improves protein balance during ultra-endurance exercise. American Journal of Physiology-Endocrinology and Metabolism. 2004;287(4):E712-E20.
doi: 10.1152/ajpendo.00543.2003
93. Kerksick CM, Wilborn CD, Roberts MD, Smith-Ryan A, Kleiner SM, Jäger R, et al. ISSN exercise & sports nutrition review update: research & recommendations. Journal of the international society of sports nutrition. 2018;15:1-57.
doi: 10.1186/s12970-018-0242-y
94. Goldstein E, Stout J, Starling-Smith T, Fukuda D. Carbohydrate-protein coingestion enhances cycling performance with minimal recovery time between bouts of exhaustive intermittent exercise. Journal of Exercise and Nutrition. 2022;5(2).
doi: 10.53520/jen2022.103125
95. Pinto CL, Botelho PB, Pimentel GD, Campos-Ferraz PL, Mota JF. Creatine supplementation and glycemic control: a systematic review. Amino acids. 2016;48:2103-29.
doi: 10.1007/s00726-016-2277-1
96. Supruniuk E, Żebrowska E, Chabowski A. Branched chain amino acids—friend or foe in the control of energy substrate turnover and insulin sensitivity? Critical Reviews in Food Science and Nutrition. 2023;63(15):2559-97.
doi: 10.1080/10408398.2021.1977910
97. Mason SA, Parker L, Trewin AJ, Wadley GD. Antioxidant Supplements and Exercise Adaptations. Oxidative Eustress in Exercise Physiology: CRC Press; 2022. p. 123-35.
doi: 10.1201/9781003051619-11
98. Zhao Y-C, Gao B-h. Integrative effects of resistance training and endurance training on mitochondrial remodeling in skeletal muscle. European Journal of Applied Physiology. 2024:1-15.
doi: 10.1007/s00421-024-05549-5
99. Neufer PD. The effect of detraining and reduced training on the physiological adaptations to aerobic exercise training. Sports Medicine. 1989;8:302-20.
doi: 10.2165/00007256-198908050-00004
100. Ivy JL, Sprague RC, Widzer MO. Effect of a carbohydrate-protein supplement on endurance performance during exercise of varying intensity. International journal of sport nutrition and exercise metabolism. 2003;13(3):382-95.
doi: 10.1123/ijsnem.13.3.382
101. Kreider RB, Wilborn CD, Taylor L, Campbell B, Almada AL, Collins R, et al. ISSN exercise & sport nutrition review: research & recommendations. Journal of the international society of sports nutrition. 2010;7:1-43.
doi: 10.1186/s12970-018-0242-y
102. Betts JA, Stevenson E, Williams C, Sheppard C, Grey E, Griffin J. Recovery of endurance running capacity: effect of carbohydrate-protein mixtures. International journal of sport nutrition and exercise metabolism. 2005;15(6):590-609.
doi: 10.1123/ijsnem.15.6.590
103. Tipton KD, Ferrando AA, Phillips SM, Doyle Jr D, Wolfe RR. Postexercise net protein synthesis in human muscle from orally administered amino acids. American Journal of Physiology-Endocrinology And Metabolism. 1999. 276(4):E628-34.
doi: 10.1152/ajpendo.1999.276.4.E628
104. Ivy JL, Goforth Jr HW, Damon BM, McCauley TR, Parsons EC, Price TB. Early postexercise muscle glycogen recovery is enhanced with a carbohydrate-protein supplement. Journal of applied physiology. 2002;93(4):1337-44.
doi: 10.1152/japplphysiol.00394.2002
105. Martínez-Lagunas V, Ding Z, Bernard JR, Wang B, Ivy JL. Added protein maintains efficacy of a low-carbohydrate sports drink. The Journal of Strength & Conditioning Research. 2010;24(1):48-59.
doi: 10.1519/JSC.0b013e3181c32e20
106. Saunders MJ, Moore RW, Kies AK, Luden ND, Pratt CA. Carbohydrate and protein hydrolysate coingestion’s improvement of late-exercise time-trial performance. International Journal of Sport Nutrition and Exercise Metabolism. 2009;19(2):136-49.
doi: 10.1123/ijsnem.19.2.136
107. Ferguson-Stegall L, McCleave EL, Ding Z, Kammer LM, Wang B, Doerner PG, et al. The effect of a low carbohydrate beverage with added protein on cycling endurance performance in trained athletes. The Journal of Strength & Conditioning Research. 2010;24(10):2577-86.
doi: 10.1519/JSC.0b013e3181ecccca
108. Romano-Ely BC, Todd MK, Saunders MJ, Laurent TS. Effect of an isocaloric carbohydrate-protein-antioxidant drink on cycling performance. Medicine and science in sports and exercise. 2006;38(9):1608-16.
doi: 10.1249/01.mss.0000229458.11452.e9
109. Van Essen M, Gibala MJ. Failure of protein to improve time trial performance when added to a sports drink. Medicine & Science in Sports & Exercise. 2006;38(8):1476-83.
doi: 10.1249/01.mss.0000228958.82968.0a
110. McLellan TM, Pasiakos SM, Lieberman HR. Effects of protein in combination with carbohydrate supplements on acute or repeat endurance exercise performance: a systematic review. Sports medicine. 2014;44:535-50.
doi: 10.1007/s40279-013-0133-y
111. Madsen K, Maclean DA, Kiens B, Christensen D. Effects of glucose, glucose plus branched-chain amino acids, or placebo on bike performance over 100 km. Journal of Applied Physiology. 1996;81(6):2644-50.
doi: 10.1152/jappl.1996.81.6.2644
112. Hausswirth C, Mujika I. Recovery for performance in sport: Human Kinetics; 2013. ISBN-13 : 978-1450434348
113. Kerksick CM, Arent S, Schoenfeld BJ, Stout JR, Campbell B, Wilborn CD, et al. International Society of Sports Nutrition position stand: nutrient timing. Journal of the international society of sports nutrition. 2017;14:1-21.
doi: 10.1186/s12970-017-0189-4
114. Shyam S, Lee KX, Tan ASW, Khoo TA, Harikrishnan S, Lalani SA, et al. Effect of Personalized Nutrition on Dietary, Physical Activity, and Health Outcomes: A Systematic Review of Randomized Trials. Nutrients. 2022;14(19).
doi: 10.3390/nu14194104
115. Martín-Rodríguez A, Belinchón-deMiguel P, Rubio-Zarapuz A, Tornero-Aguilera JF, Martínez-Guardado I, Villanueva-Tobaldo CV, et al. Advances in Understanding the Interplay between Dietary Practices, Body Composition, and Sports Performance in Athletes. Nutrients. 2024;16(4):571.
doi: 10.3390/nu16040571
Journal of Sports Physiology and Athletic Conditioning (J.S.P.A.C) 2024;4(12):32-47 
*Corresponding author: Daniel Tarmast Address: Department of Physical Education, Pardis Branch, Islamic Azad University, Pardis, Iran. Email: dr.tarmast@iau.ac.ir Tell: +989332644245 |
Received: 11 May 2024 Revised: 20 May2024 Accepted: 28 May 2024
Keywords: Carbohydrate, Protein, Carbohydrate-Protein Ingestion, Cycling |
Abstract
This review illustrates the impact of carbohydrate (CHO) and protein (PRO) supplementation on cycling performance. Strategic nutritional planning greatly benefits endurance athletes, particularly cyclists, as it underscores the critical role of macronutrient consumption in improving on the track/road performance and recovery. CHO is the primary energy source for prolonged cycling, as they are crucial for preserving optimal performance by preventing glycogen depletion and delaying fatigue. The efficacy of CHO is significantly influenced by their glycemic index (GI). High-GI CHO offers a rapid energy source that facilitates muscle glycogen resynthesis and sustained performance. Research suggests that high-GI CHO can increase muscle glycogen levels by up to 40% within four hours, underscoring their significance during and after pedaling. PRO, although not the primary energy source, is essential for synthesizing and repairing muscles, particularly during prolonged and intensive cycling. Incorporating essential amino acids to facilitate recovery is imperative, as they aid in muscle protein synthesis and mitigate muscle fatigue. Recent studies have demonstrated that PRO supplements, especially after pedaling, significantly enhance muscle glycogen and protein synthesis replenishment, leading to quicker recovery and improved performance during cycling sessions. The synergistic benefits of the combined supplementation of CHO and PRO are greater than those of each macronutrient alone. This combination improves endurance, delays fatigue, and ensures more efficient recovery by increasing glycogen storage, accelerating recovery, and enhancing muscle protein synthesis. The optimization of the benefits of these supplements is contingent upon the timing, dosage, and composition. Glycogen replenishment and muscle protein synthesis are optimized by consuming CHO and PRO immediately prior to and following exercise. This is particularly true for high-GI carbohydrates, such as glucose, and swiftly assimilated PRO, such as whey. In conclusion, this review provides practical recommendations for cyclists seeking to optimize their nutritional strategies by synthesizing findings from various studies. Cyclists can enhance their overall performance and achieve long-term athletic success by developing effective dietary plans that improve endurance, defer fatigue, and facilitate efficient recovery, facilitated by understanding the complex interactions between these macronutrients. |
Daniel Tarmast1*, Asok Kumar Ghosh2 1. Assistant Professor, Department of Physical Education and Sport Sciences, Faculty of Humanities, Parand Branch, Islamic Azad University, Parand City, Tehran, Iran 2. Retired Professor, Department of Sports Science, School of Rehabilitation Sciences and Physical Education, Ramakrishna Mission Vivekananda University, Belur Math, Howrah, West Bengal, India
|
Journal of Exercise&
|
Review Article |
1. Introduction |
Journal of Exercise&
|
Nutrition is essential to optimal performance and recovery in endurance sports, particularly for cyclists who require sustained energy output over extended periods. Cycling competitions vary significantly in distance and duration, ranging from short 200-meter sprints that last only 10 to 12 seconds to the demanding 5000-kilometer Tour de France, which spans 23 days (1-3). Extensive research has been conducted on the complex relationship between diet and athletic performance, resulting in significant insights into how specific nutrients (4), such as carbohydrates (CHO) (5) and proteins (PRO) (6), can improve endurance, defer fatigue, and facilitate recovery.
The primary energy source during prolonged exercise is CHO, which are essential for maintaining performance (5). During prolonged physical activity, muscle glycogen, a stored form of glucose, is depleted and thus a primary factor contributing to fatigue (7). Endurance athletes must consume sufficient CHO to maintain adequate glycogen stores (8). CHO supplementation before and during exercise has consistently revealed significant improvement in performance by regulating blood glucose levels and delaying the onset of fatigue (9). In cyclists, consuming high-glycemic index CHOs prior to pedaling has enhanced endurance performance by maintaining blood glucose for prolonged durations, thus providing a readily accessible energy source (10). The recovery process is more efficient when CHO is consumed immediately following exercise (11, 12).
Although PROs are not the primary energy source, they are essential for the repair and rehabilitation of muscles. Dietary PROs are required to facilitate regeneration and synthesis, as muscle PROs can be broken down during prolonged (6) and intense exercise (13, 14). PRO supplementation offers advantages that surpass muscle regeneration (6); they encompass improved recovery periods (15), reduced muscle soreness (16), and enhanced muscle PRO synthesis (17), all of which are indispensable for bikers who participate in rigorous training regimens (18). It has been demonstrated that cyclists can sustain high levels of performance over multiple training sessions by consuming PRO immediately after exercise, which assists in muscle regeneration, reduces soreness, and promotes overall recovery (19, 20).
The effects of combined CHO-PRO supplementation on cycling performance are an intriguing area of research (21-23). Studies have shown that the concurrent consumption of CHO and PRO can enhance the advantages of each macronutrient individually. The use of a combined CHO-PRO supplement has been shown to enhance muscle PRO synthesis (24), speed up recovery processes (25), and increase glycogen storage (26). These combined effects can result in prolonged pedaling, delayed fatigue, and more efficient recovery, potentially improving cyclists' performance.
Journal of Exercise&
|
2. Materials and Methods |
This brief review evaluates well-documents dietary patterns to assess their impact on CHO and PRO utilization and their subsequent enhancement of athletic performance. This article focuses on a diverse array of CHO and PRO diets, although it only comprehensively examines some such diets. The primary sources for this analysis were peer-reviewed articles from PubMed, supplemented by studies from Google Scholar, Scopus, Ovid MEDLINE, OVID Healthstar, and the Cumulative Index to Nursing and Allied Health Literature (CINAHL). The search was conducted without regard to date and was concluded in 2024, ensuring the most up-to-date information. It included narrative and systematic reviews and meta-analyses that addressed dietary patterns' impact on athletic performance. The regimens that were examined were those that were most frequently cited in the scientific literature during this time. In order to substantiate the conclusions of this study, additional measures were implemented, such as an exhaustive examination of the primary studies referenced in these articles.
3. Carbohydrate Supplementation in Cycling
|
In cycling, the strategic consumption of macronutrients, particularly CHO (32) and PRO (33), are essential for improving endurance performance (34-36). CHO is the primary fuel source for both high-intensity and endurance activities, and they are essential for maintaining high levels of energy during protracted periods of cycling (37). The stomach can absorb CHO into the bloodstream without causing discomfort during pedaling. The type of CHO is essential for glycogen resynthesis, with higher glycemic index (GI) intakes being more effective (38, 39).
The GI is a metric that describes the rise in blood glucose levels due to consuming CHO, developed in 1980 at the University of Toronto (40). This scale quantifies the proportion of blood glucose produced in response to specific diets compared to glucose (41). Low-GI diets induce a gradual increase in glucose concentration, providing a balanced and sustained energy level, while high-GI diets induce a rapid increase (40). Blood glucose levels are rapidly elevated by high-GI diets, which are rapidly absorbed (42). Conversely, low-GI diets produce a gradual rise in blood glucose levels due to their slow absorption (42).
The digestion rate of a diet is influenced by the CHO type, fiber content, food form, and fat or PRO amount (43-45). Blood glucose and insulin levels are significantly raised by elevated glycemic loads (46-48). Due to their glycemic and insulinemic responses, high-GI diets (GI ≥ 70) increase muscle glycogen resynthesis rates and performance (49). Within four hours, the consumption of high-GI diets can elevate muscle glycogen levels by as much as 40% (50). High-GI diets provide athletes with a rapid energy boost during exercise (51), empowering them and making them feel energized. These diets are most effective when consumed during or after exercise, as they enter the bloodstream quickly (52). High-GI CHO supplements are appropriate for training due to their rapid increase in muscle glycogen (53, 54). CHO is typically consumed independently during training, with the exception of endurance training, where PRO may also be advantageous (55).
Journal of Exercise&
|
The stomach can absorb CHO into the bloodstream without causing discomfort during cycling (66). Coyle et al. (2001) and Naderi et al. (2023) have demonstrated that the type of CHO consumed is essential for glycogen resynthesis, with higher GI intakes more effective (23, 38). After consuming CHO, the GI assesses the rise in blood glucose (40). The University of Toronto scientists established this metric in 1980 to quantify the proportion of blood glucose produced in response to specific diets compared to glucose (67). The glucose concentration increases gradually with low-GI diets, while it increases rapidly with high-GI diets (40). High-GI diets are rapidly absorbed and cause an increase in blood glucose levels (42). In contrast, low-GI diets gradually raise blood glucose levels due to their slow absorption (42, 68).
The rate of digestion of a diet is influenced by the CHO type, fiber content, food form, and fat or PRO amount (44, 45). The levels of blood glucose and insulin are significantly elevated by elevated glycemic loads (47, 48). As a result of their glycemic and insulinemic responses, high-GI diets (GI ≥ 70) are particularly beneficial for athletes, as they increase muscle glycogen resynthesis rates and performance (49, 63). According to Coyle et al. (1985), the consumption of high-GI diets can raise muscle glycogen levels by as much as 40% within a four-hour period, providing a rapid energy boost during exercise (50). This rapid energy boost is especially beneficial for athletes during exercise, which is achieved through the consumption of high-GI diets (51). According to Burke (1995), these diets are most effective when consumed during or after exercise, as they are rapidly absorbed into the bloodstream (52). Additionally, Kushnick et al. (2008) have suggested that high-GI CHO supplements are appropriate for training due to their rapid increase in muscle glycogen (54). In general, CHO is consumed independently during pedaling, with the exception of endurance cycling, where PRO may benefit (3, 69).
The metabolic and performance effects of various CHO types during cycling are comparable (5, 56, 57). The oxidation rates of different CHO types play a crucial role in their performance effects. Glucose undergoes oxidation at a rate of up to 1 g.min-1, whereas fructose (58) and galactose (59) undergo oxidation at a slower rate as a result of their conversion to glucose in the liver. This conversion process has the potential to result in gastrointestinal distress and lower performance (60). As Saris et al. (1993) suggested, the ratio of amylopectin to amylose in insoluble starch leads to a slower oxidation rate (61). However, high amylopectin starches are quickly absorbed, while high amylose starches undergo slow hydrolysis. Amylose undergoes oxidation at a low rate, while amylopectin emulates the high oxidation rate of glucose (60). Solid and liquid CHO forms are both effective during cycling, eliciting comparable metabolic responses (62).
To achieve optimal cycling performance, consuming a sufficient amount of CHO to avoid gastrointestinal issues and maximize exogenous oxidation is crucial. Rehrer et al. (1992) conducted a study in which cyclists consumed glucose solutions at rates of 4.5% and 17% during 80-minute endurance trials (70). While the oxidation rate remained stable, the CHO oxidation rates significantly increased with higher dosages. Nevertheless, Murray et al. (1991) and Mitchell et al. (1989) conducted research that needed to establish a clear dose-response relationship between CHO intake during cycling and endurance performance (71, 72). After 120 minutes of cycling, Jeukendrup et al. (1999) observed that oxidation rates of up to 0.94 g.min-1 were achieved when larger CHO amounts were consumed (73).
Burgess et al. (1991) discovered that consuming 13 g.h-1 of CHO during endurance cycling at 70% VO2max did not affect metabolic variables, RPE, glucoregulatory hormone response, or time-to-exhaustion (74). Similarly, Murray et al. (1991) found that 4.8 km endurance cycling was enhanced to comparable levels after 2 hours of pedaling at 65 to 75% VO2peak when CHO intakes of 26 and 78 g.h-1 were consumed (71). Casa et al. (2000) observed that increasing CHO intake did not result in improved exogenous glucose oxidation rates, suggesting that the beneficial impact of CHO supplementation is limited to intakes between 4% and 8% (75). CHO supplementation, particularly in the range of 30 to 60 g.h-1, is effective in maintaining blood glucose levels without causing gastrointestinal distress or fluid delivery impairments. Thus, it helps in sustaining performance during endurance cycling. Bikers should consume fluids at a rate of 600 to 1200 mL per hour to prevent decreased performance due to dehydration (76, 77). The necessary fuel and hydration for endurance cycling can be achieved by ingesting 5 to 10 g of CHO per 100 mL for optimal cycling performance (78). Recent research indicates a curvilinear dose-response relationship between CHO supplementation and endurance exercise, with the best 20-km cycling time trial performance achieved at 78 g.h-1 CHO (79-81).
4. Protein Supplementation in Cycling
|
Journal of Exercise&
|
PROs play a critical role in the body's ability to repair and rebuild muscle tissues, particularly following intense physical activity (19). For cyclists who often engage in prolonged and strenuous exercise, adequate PRO intake is essential for optimizing performance and recovery (82). In the human body, nine of the twenty amino acids required for bodily functions are not synthesized (83). These amino acids are as follows: phenylalanine, threonine, tryptophan, valine, methionine, histidine, isoleucine, leucine, and lysine. Cyclists must incorporate them into the diet plan to ensure they receive adequate essential amino acids. Valine, isoleucine, and leucine are the three Branched-chain amino acids vital for bioenergetics and cycling (18, 84). PRO consumption is crucial for the maintenance of health and the enhancement of cycling performance (85). The recommended daily PRO intake for adults is normally 0.8 g.kg-1 of body weight (33). The recommended PRO intake for endurance athletes, including cyclists, ranges from 1.2 to 2.0 g.kg-1 per day. This intake should be evenly distributed across meals to ensure a constant supply of amino acids for muscle repair and recovery (8, 20).
Journal of Exercise&
|
Numerous studies have highlighted the benefits of PRO supplementation for enhancing cycling performance and recovery (4, 16, 20). A study by Koopman et al. (2004) demonstrated that the ingestion of a CHO-PRO supplement post-exercise enhanced muscle glycogen resynthesis and increased PRO synthesis compared to CHO alone (92). Another study by Saunders et al. (2004) found that cyclists who consumed a CHO-PRO supplement experienced improved endurance performance and reduced muscle damage during prolonged cycling (31). These findings suggest that PRO supplementation not only aids in muscle repair and recovery but also contributes to better overall performance in endurance activities like cycling (85).
5. Combined Carbohydrate and Protein Supplementation for Cycling Performance
|
Combining CHO and PRO for supplementation has gained substantial attention due to the potential synergistic effects that enhance athletic performance, particularly in endurance sports such as cycling (18, 85, 93). The integration of these macronutrients supports sustained energy supply, muscle recovery, and overall performance improvement (94). Essential amino acids enhance insulin response to CHO, facilitate creatine consumption (95), and increase glycogen storage by supporting muscle synthesis (96). Enhanced muscle oxidative capacity is among the significant adaptations that transpire during cycling (97). Resistance training primarily results in muscle hypertrophy, whereas endurance cycling increases the size, number, and enzyme content of mitochondria, suggesting a disruption in amino acid metabolism (98, 99).
Journal of Exercise&
|
Further research provides evidence that endurance performance is enhanced through the consumption of CHO-PRO combinations, as opposed to consuming CHOs alone (31, 106). Ferguson-Stegall et al. (2010) examined the impact of CHO-PRO supplementation on cycling performance (107). According to this evidence, endurance capacity can be enhanced by CHO-PRO supplements. Ghosh et al. (2010) used 60 g of sago-soy supplementations at 20-minute intervals during 60 minutes of cycling at 60% of VO2max (21). The combined supplementations of soy PRO and sago CHO effectively delay fatigue during cycling. In contrast, some scientific sources indicate that the consumption of CHO-PRO has a diverse impact on cycling performance. Romano-Ely et al. (2006) compared the effects of a CHO-PRO supplement and an isocaloric CHO supplement on the time to fatigue (108). Their findings indicated no difference in the time to fatigue between the two trials when cycling. Van Essen and Gibala (2006) conducted a study to examine the impact of adding 2% PRO to a 6% CHO drink, in comparison to a 6% CHO drink and a placebo, during an 80-km cycling time trial, concluding that consuming CHO-PRO intake did not significantly improve cycling performance (109). A similar result was also seen in other studies (22, 110, 111).
6. Practical Recommendations for Cyclists
|
For competitive cyclists, the optimal balance of CHO and PRO in their diets is crucial for recovery and performance (93, 112). A 3:1 or 4:1 ratio of CHO to PRO is often recommended to meet the high demands of cycling, aiding in glycogen replenishment and muscle repair (113). Adjusting this balance based on the duration and intensity of cycling activities can significantly improve energy storage and muscle recovery. For instance, consuming a meal high in CHO and moderate in PRO, such as a whole-grain sandwich with lean meat or oatmeal with fruit and yogurt, three to four hours before pedaling can boost energy levels. Additionally, a recovery shake with around 60g of CHO and 15-20g of PRO taken within 30 minutes of riding can help rapidly replenish glycogen and aid in muscle tissue regeneration.
This dietary approach can be tailored to the specific needs of individual cyclists by considering their genetic background, training status, and dietary preferences, all of which affect nutrient metabolism and diet effectiveness (Table 1). Therefore, personalized nutrition plans should be developed through trial and error, observing the impact of different food sources on recovery and performance. Unique dietary options, like vegan or gluten-free, should also be provided to meet nutritional requirements without compromising digestive health (114). When riding in hot and humid situations, it is crucial to maintain an adequate electrolyte balance and prevent dehydration (22). Athletes should ensure adequate hydration, particularly with electrolyte-rich fluids, and consider using dietary supplements like PRO powders and CHO gels to complement their diet. However, whole foods should always remain the primary source of nutrition. Ultimately, adhering to a strategic and personalized dietary plan based on scientific knowledge and continual monitoring will help athletes achieve their long-term athletic goals and optimal performance (115).
Table 1. Overview of Practical Recommendations for Cyclists. | |||
|---|---|---|---|
Stage/Category | Timing | Dietary Composition | Examples |
Pre-Exercise Intake | 3-4 hours before cycling | High in CHO (1-2 g.kg-1 body weight), moderate in PRO (0.3 g.kg-1 body weight) | Oatmeal with fruit and yogurt, whole grain sandwich with lean meat |
Intra-Exercise Intake | For cycling sessions longer than 60 minutes | 30-60 g of CHO per hour, small amounts of PRO (5-10 g) | Sports drinks, CHO gels |
Post-Exercise Intake | Within 30 minutes after cycling | A 3:1 CHO to PRO ratio; about 1-1.2 g.kg-1 of CHO and 0.3 g.kg-1 of PRO | Chocolate milk, PRO shakes with fruit, banana with nut butter |
Personalization of Nutrition | - | Trial and error to find the best CHO and PRO sources | As mentioned above. |
Special Diet Plans | - | Vegan or Vegetarian: Focus on plant-based PRO such as legumes, quinoa, nuts | As mentioned above. |
Hydration | - | Emphasis on adequate hydration alongside electrolyte-rich fluids | - |
Supplementation | - | PRO powders (whey, plant-based), CHO gels, sports drinks | As mentioned above. |
Journal of Exercise&
|
7. Conclusion |
In conclusion, the performance of cyclists, particularly in endurance events, is substantially influenced by the complex relationship between CHO and PRO supplementation. The optimization of performance and recovery is contingent upon understanding the metabolic demands and the role of macronutrients during prolonged cycling.
According to extensive research, the strategic consumption of CHO and PRO before, during, and following cycling can significantly improve endurance pedaling, delay fatigue, and accelerate recovery. The primary source of sustenance for high-intensity and endurance cycling is CHO, and the effectiveness of the consumed CHO is significantly influenced by its GI. During cycling, high-GI CHO is rapidly absorbed, leading to a quick rise in blood glucose levels. This substance's rapid absorption facilitates muscle glycogen's resynthesis, which plays a crucial role in maintaining sustained performance during prolonged cycling sessions. Research has shown that high-GI CHO can increase muscle glycogen content by up to 40% within four hours of consumption, enhancing performance by providing readily available energy. In addition to boosting CHO oxidation rates, the consumption of a combination of glucose and fructose can also enhance overall endurance.
PRO, while not the primary energy source, plays an essential role in the repair and rehabilitation of muscles. Branched-chain amino acids, as essential amino acids, significantly contribute to muscle PRO synthesis, alleviate muscle soreness, and promote expedited recovery. Research has demonstrated that promptly supplementing with PROs following exercise can substantially increase muscle glycogen resynthesis and PRO synthesis, resulting in improved recovery and sustained performance during subsequent training sessions. The study has demonstrated that adding PRO to CHO at a 3:1 ratio notably improves endurance performance and facilitates recovery. Another crucial factor is the timing of nutrient consumption. Consuming CHO and PRO at specific intervals before, during, and after exercise is key to maximizing their benefits. For instance, consuming CHO 30 to 60 minutes before cycling can raise blood glucose levels, providing an immediate energy boost. Maintaining a consistent intake of CHO is essential to maintaining energy levels and delaying fatigue during pedaling. After cycling, a combination of CHO and PRO can speed up recovery by replenishing glycogen stores and repairing muscle tissues.
It is imperative to develop customized diet plans to meet each cyclist's specific requirements, including training regimens, performance objectives, and goals. The cycling event's duration and intensity, individual metabolic responses, and dietary preferences must all be considered. During prolonged cycling sessions, riders should ingest 30 to 60 grams of CHO per hour and maintain proper hydration to achieve optimal performance. To maintain a consistent supply of amino acids for muscle repair and recovery, it is recommended that the daily PRO intake be adjusted to a range of 1.2 to 2.0 grams per kilogram of body weight, with even distribution across meals.
The synergistic effects of combined CHO and PRO supplementation are well-documented, and they offer substantial advantages in cycling recovery and performance enhancement. Cyclists can efficiently recover, maintain high-performance levels, and achieve their athletic objectives by adopting a strategic nutritional approach that considers CHO and PRO intake's type, timing, and quantity. This holistic understanding of sports nutrition is contingent upon developing effective dietary strategies that promote long-term athletic success.
Acknowledgements |
I, Daniel Tarmast, an assistant professor, am writing to convey my appreciation to Prof. Asok Kumar Ghosh, who served as my supervisor during my doctoral program. His invaluable support has been instrumental in my numerous scientific endeavors in the field of Sports Science. I extend my best wishes for his well-being and prosperity.
Funding |
This study did not have any funds.
Author contributions |
All of the authors participated in this study, which they themselves conceived and designed. The final version of the paper has been reviewed and endorsed by all authors, who have agreed in the order of their names.
Compliance with ethical standards |
Conflict of interest The authors declare that there is no conflict of interest
Ethical approval There was no need to use ethics in this article.
Informed consent There was no requirement for a consent form.
Author contributions |
All of the authors participated in this study, which they themselves conceived and designed. The final version of the paper has been reviewed and endorsed by all authors, who have agreed in the order of their names.
References |
1. Craig NP, Norton KI. Characteristics of track cycling. Sports Medicine. 2001;31:457-68.
doi: 10.2165/00007256-200131070-00001
2. Vogt S, Schumacher Y, Roecker K, Dickhuth H-H, Schoberer U, Schmid A, et al. Power output during the Tour de France. International journal of sports medicine. 2007;28(09):756-61.
3. Atkinson G, Davison R, Jeukendrup A, Passfield L. Science and cycling: current knowledge and future directions for research. Journal of sports sciences. 2003;21(9):767-87.
doi: 10.1080/0264041031000102097
4. Tarmast D, Ghosh AK. The Impact of Carbohydrate, Protein, and Combined Carbohydrate-Protein Supplementation on Muscle Damage and Oxidative Stress Markers During Prolonged Cycling Performance in the Heat. Asian J Sports Med. 2024;15(2):e144084. Epub 2024-08-01.
5. Jeukendrup AE. Carbohydrate intake during exercise and performance. Nutrition. 2004;20(7-8):669-77.
doi: 10.1016/j.nut.2004.04.017
6. Camera DM. Evaluating the effects of increased protein intake on muscle strength, hypertrophy and power adaptations with concurrent training: a narrative review. Sports Medicine. 2022;52(3):441-61.
doi: 10.1007/s40279-021-01585-9
7. Place N, Westerblad H. Metabolic Factors in Skeletal Muscle Fatigue. Exercise Metabolism: Springer; 2022. p. 377-99.
doi: 10.1007/978-3-030-94305-9_17
8. Amawi A, AlKasasbeh W, Jaradat M, Almasri A, Alobaidi S, Hammad AA, et al. Athletes’ nutritional demands: a narrative review of nutritional requirements. Frontiers in Nutrition. 2024;10:1331854.
doi: 10.3389/fnut.2023.1331854
9. Williams JH, Batts TW, Lees S. Reduced muscle glycogen differentially affects exercise performance and muscle fatigue. International Scholarly Research Notices. 2013;2013(1):371235.
doi: 10.1155/2013/371235
10. Burke LM, Claassen A, Hawley JA, Noakes TD. Carbohydrate intake during prolonged cycling minimizes effect of glycemic index of preexercise meal. Journal of Applied Physiology. 1998;85(6):2220-6.
doi: 10.1152/jappl.1998.85.6.2220
11. Craven J, Desbrow B, Sabapathy S, Bellinger P, McCartney D, Irwin C. The effect of consuming carbohydrate with and without protein on the rate of muscle glycogen re-synthesis during short-term post-exercise recovery: A systematic review and meta-analysis. Sports Medicine-Open. 2021;7:1-15.
doi: 10.1186/s40798-020-00297-0
12. Jentjens R, Jeukendrup AE. Determinants of post-exercise glycogen synthesis during short-term recovery. Sports Medicine. 2003;33:117-44.
doi: 10.2165/00007256-200333020-00004
13. Chen J, Zhou R, Feng Y, Cheng L. Molecular mechanisms of exercise contributing to tissue regeneration. Signal Transduction and Targeted Therapy. 2022;7(1):383.
doi: 10.1038/s41392-022-01233-2
14. Peake JM, Neubauer O, Della Gatta PA, Nosaka K. Muscle damage and inflammation during recovery from exercise. Journal of applied physiology. 2017. 122(3):559-570.
doi: 10.1152/japplphysiol.00971.2016
15. Sollie O, Jeppesen PB, Tangen DS, Jernerén F, Nellemann B, Valsdottir D, et al. Protein intake in the early recovery period after exhaustive exercise improves performance the following day. Journal of applied physiology. 2018. 125(6):1731-1742.
doi: 10.1152/japplphysiol.01132.2017
16. Pasiakos SM, Lieberman HR, McLellan TM. Effects of protein supplements on muscle damage, soreness and recovery of muscle function and physical performance: a systematic review. Sports medicine. 2014;44:655-70.
doi: 10.1007/s40279-013-0137-7
17. Kumar V, Atherton P, Smith K, Rennie MJ. Human muscle protein synthesis and breakdown during and after exercise. Journal of applied physiology. 2009;106(6):2026-39.
doi: 10.1152/japplphysiol.91481.2008
18. Lin Y-N, Tseng T-T, Knuiman P, Chan WP, Wu S-H, Tsai C-L, et al. Protein supplementation increases adaptations to endurance training: A systematic review and meta-analysis. Clinical Nutrition. 2021;40(5):3123-32.
doi: 10.1016/j.clnu.2020.12.012
19. Tarmast D. Metabolism and nutrients intake in adolescents in exercise: Proteins. The 4th National Conference on Applied Research in Physical Education, Sport & Athletic Science; Tehran, Iran2019. ID: PESSO04_006
20. Jäger R, Kerksick CM, Campbell BI, Cribb PJ, Wells SD, Skwiat TM, et al. International society of sports nutrition position stand: protein and exercise. Journal of the International Society of Sports Nutrition. 2017;14:1-25.
doi: 10.1186/s12970-017-0177-8
21. Ghosh AK, Rahaman AA, Singh R. Combination of sago and soy-protein supplementation during endurance cycling exercise and subsequent high-intensity endurance capacity. International journal of sport nutrition and exercise metabolism. 2010;20(3):216-23.
22. Tarmast D, Ghosh AK, Chen CK. Effect of Iso–Caloric Sago and Soy Supplementations during 90 Minutes Steady–State Cycling on Subsequent 20–km Cycling Time Trial Performance in the Heat. Journal of Sports Physiology and Athletic Conditioning. 2021;2(1):1-15.
doi: 10.61186/jspac.21112.1.2.1
23. Naderi A, Gobbi N, Ali A, Berjisian E, Hamidvand A, Forbes SC, et al. Carbohydrates and endurance exercise: A narrative review of a food first approach. Nutrients. 2023;15(6):1367.
doi: 10.3390/nu15061367
24. Moreno-Pérez D, López-Samanes Á, Larrosa M, Larumbe-Zabala E, Centeno A, Roberts J, et al. Effects of protein–carbohydrate vs. carbohydrate alone supplementation on immune inflammation markers in endurance athletes: a randomized controlled trial. European Journal of Applied Physiology. 2023;123(7):1495-505.
doi: 10.1007/s00421-023-05168-6
25. Berardi JM, Price TB, Noreen EE, Lemon PW. Postexercise Muscle Glycogen Recovery Enhanced with a Carboyhydrate-Protein Supplement. Medicine and science in sports and exercise. 2006;38(6):1106.
doi: 10.1249/01.mss.0000222826.49358.f3
26. Zawadzki K, Yaspelkis 3rd B, Ivy J. Carbohydrate-protein complex increases the rate of muscle glycogen storage after exercise. Journal of applied physiology. 1992;72(5):1854-9.
doi: 10.1152/jappl.1992.72.5.1854
27. Betts JA, Toone RJ, Stokes KA, Thompson D. Systemic indices of skeletal muscle damage and recovery of muscle function after exercise: effect of combined carbohydrate–protein ingestion. Applied Physiology, Nutrition, and Metabolism. 2009;34(4):773-84.
doi: 10.1139/H09-070
28. Hosseini M, Ghasem Zadeh Khorasani N, Divkan B, Riyahi Malayeri S. Interactive Effect of High Intensity Interval Training with Vitamin E Consumption on the Serum Levels of Hsp70 and SOD in Male Wistar Rats. Iranian J Nutr Sci Food Technol 2019; 13 (4) :21-28.
29. Ivy JL. Nutrient timing: The future of sports nutrition: Basic Health Publications, Inc.; 2004.
ISBN-13 : 978-1591201410
30. Nielsen LLK, Lambert MNT, Jeppesen PB. The effect of ingesting carbohydrate and proteins on athletic performance: A systematic review and meta-analysis of randomized controlled trials. Nutrients. 2020;12(5):1483.
doi: 10.3390/nu12051483
31. Saunders MJ, Kane MD, Todd MK. Effects of a carbohydrate-protein beverage on cycling endurance and muscle damage. Medicine & Science in Sports & Exercise. 2004;36(7):1233-8.
doi: 10.1249/01.mss.0000132377.66177.9f
32. Holesh JE, Aslam S, Martin A. Physiology, Carbohydrates. StatPearls. Treasure Island (FL) ineligible companies. Disclosure: Sanah Aslam declares no relevant financial relationships with ineligible companies. Disclosure: Andrew Martin declares no relevant financial relationships with ineligible companies.: StatPearls Publishing LLC.; 2024. Bookshelf ID: NBK459280, PMID: 29083823
33. LaPelusa A, Kaushik R. Physiology, Proteins. StatPearls. Treasure Island (FL) ineligible companies. Disclosure: Ravi Kaushik declares no relevant financial relationships with ineligible companies. StatPearls Publishing LLC.; 2024. Bookshelf ID: NBK551511, PMID: 31855355
34. Garcia-Roves P, Terrados N, Fernandez S, Patterson A. Macronutrients intake of top level cyclists during continuous competition-change in the feeding pattern. International Journal of Sports Medicine. 1998;19(01):61-7.
35. Cole M, Carter JL, Podlogar T, Fell JM, Gough LA. Macronutrients for Training and Racing. Nutrition and Supplements in Cycling: Routledge; 2024. p. 17-36.
ISBN-13 : 978-103245107
36. Tarmast D. Metabolism and nutrients intake in adolescents in exercise: Carbohydrates. The 4th National Conference on Novel Approaches to Education and Research; Amol, Mazandaran, Iran2019. ID: NERA04_474
37. King AJ, Hall RC. Nutrition and indoor cycling: a cross-sectional analysis of carbohydrate intake for online racing and training. British Journal of Nutrition. 2022;127(8):1204-13.
doi: 10.1017/S0007114521001860
38. Coyle EF, Jeukendrup AE, Oseto MC, Hodgkinson BJ, Zderic TW. Low-fat diet alters intramuscular substrates and reduces lipolysis and fat oxidation during exercise. American Journal of Physiology-Endocrinology And Metabolism. 2001;280(3):E391-E8.
doi: 10.1152/ajpendo.2001.280.3.E391
39. Moitzi AM, Krššák M, Klepochova R, Triska C, Csapo R, König D. Effects of a 10-Week Exercise and Nutritional Intervention with Variable Dietary Carbohydrates and Glycaemic Indices on Substrate Metabolism, Glycogen Storage, and Endurance Performance in Men: A Randomized Controlled Trial. Sports Medicine-Open. 2024;10(1):36.
doi: 10.1186/s40798-024-00705-9
40. Sun F-H, Li C, Zhang Y-J, Wong SH-S, Wang L. Effect of glycemic index of breakfast on energy intake at subsequent meal among healthy people: a meta-analysis. Nutrients. 2016;8(1):37.
doi: 10.3390/nu8010037
41. Zhang J-Y, Jiang Y-T, Liu Y-S, Chang Q, Zhao Y-H, Wu Q-J. The association between glycemic index, glycemic load, and metabolic syndrome: a systematic review and dose–response meta-analysis of observational studies. European journal of nutrition. 2020;59:451-63.
doi: 10.1007/s00394-019-02124-z
42. Jenkins DJ, Wolever T, Taylor RH, Barker H, Fielden H, Baldwin JM, et al. Glycemic index of foods: a physiological basis for carbohydrate exchange. The American journal of clinical nutrition. 1981;34(3):362-6.
43. Oba M, Kammes-Main K. Symposium review: Effects of carbohydrate digestion on feed intake and fuel supply. Journal of dairy science. 2023;106(3):2153-60.
44. Ludwig DS, Majzoub JA, Al-Zahrani A, Dallal GE, Blanco I, Roberts SB. High glycemic index foods, overeating, and obesity. Pediatrics. 1999;103(3):e26-e.
45. Volek J. Enhancing exercise performance: nutritional implications. Exercise and Sport Science. 2000:471-86.
46. O’Reilly J, Wong SH, Chen Y. Glycaemic index, glycaemic load and exercise performance. Sports Medicine. 2010;40:27-39.
doi: 10.2165/11319660-000000000-00000
47. Ludwig DS. Glycemic load comes of age. The Journal of Nutrition. 2003;133(9):2695-6.
48. Foster-Powell K, Holt SH, Brand-Miller JC. International table of glycemic index and glycemic load values: 2002. The American journal of clinical nutrition. 2002;76(1):5-56.
doi: 10.1093/ajcn/76.1.5
49. Erith S, Williams C, Stevenson E, Chamberlain S, Crews P, Rushbury I. The effect of high carbohydrate meals with different glycemic indices on recovery of performance during prolonged intermittent high-intensity shuttle running. International journal of sport nutrition and exercise metabolism. 2006;16(4):393-404.
50. Coyle EF, Coggan AR, Hemmert M, Lowe RC, Walters TJ. Substrate usage during prolonged exercise following a preexercise meal. Journal of applied physiology. 1985;59(2):429-33.
doi: 10.1152/jappl.1985.59.2.429
51. Coyle EF, Coggan AR, Hemmert MK, Ivy JL. Muscle glycogen utilization during prolonged strenuous exercise when fed carbohydrate. J Appl Physiol (1985). 1986;61(1):165-72.
doi: 10.1152/jappl.1986.61.1.165
52. Burke L. Practical issues in nutrition for athletes. Journal of Sports Sciences. 1995;13(S1):S83-S90.
doi: 10.1080/02640419508732281
53. Burke LM, Collier GR, Davis PG, Fricker PA, Sanigorski AJ, Hargreaves M. Muscle glycogen storage after prolonged exercise: effect of the frequency of carbohydrate feedings. The American journal of clinical nutrition. 1996;64(1):115-9.
doi: 10.1152/jappl.1993.75.2.1019
54. Kushnick MR, Jackson AC, Stamford BA, Venkatachalam M, Zhang G, Hamaker B. Glycemic Response To Fast And Slow Digestible Carbohydrate In High And Low Aerobic Fitness Men, Medicine & Science in Sports & Exercise. 2008;40(5):S455.
doi: 10.1249/01.mss.0000322933.00002.e1
55. Flockhart M, Larsen FJ. Continuous glucose monitoring in endurance athletes: interpretation and relevance of measurements for improving performance and health. Sports Medicine. 2024;54(2):247-55.
doi: 10.1007/s40279-023-01910-4
56. Jeukendrup AE. Carbohydrate feeding during exercise. European Journal of Sport Science. 2008;8(2):77-86.
doi: 10.1080/17461390801918971
57. Wagenmakers A, Brouns F, Saris W, Halliday D. Oxidation rates of orally ingested carbohydrates during prolonged exercise in men. Journal of Applied Physiology. 1993;75(6):2774-80.
doi: 10.1152/jappl.1993.75.6.2774
58. Murray R, Paul GL, Seifert JG, Eddy DE, Halaby GA. The effects of glucose, fructose, and sucrose ingestion during exercise. Medicine and Science in Sports and Exercise. 1989;21(3):275-82. PMID: 2733576
59. Leijssen D, Saris W, Jeukendrup AE, Wagenmakers A. Oxidation of exogenous [13C] galactose and [13C] glucose during exercise. Journal of Applied Physiology. 1995;79(3):720-5.
doi: 10.1152/jappl.1995.79.3.720
60. Jeukendrup A, Gleeson M. Sport Nutrition: Human Kinetics; 2024. ISBN-13 : 978-1718221703
61. Saris W, Goodpaster B, Jeukendrup A, Brouns F, Halliday D, Wagenmakers A. Exogenous carbohydrate oxidation from different carbohydrate sources during exercise. Journal of Applied Physiology. 1993;75(5):2168-72.
doi: 10.1152/jappl.1993.75.5.2168
62. Lugo M, Sherman WM, Wimer GS, Garleb K. Metabolic responses when different forms of carbohydrate energy are consumed during cycling. International Journal of Sport Nutrition and Exercise Metabolism. 1993;3(4):398-407.
doi: 10.1123/ijsn.3.4.398
63. Tarmast D, Ghosh AK, Chen CK. Metabolic Responses to Sago, Soy and Sago+Soy Combined Supplementations during Endurance Cycling Performance Followed by Time Trial Performance in the Heat. International Conference of Sports Science- AESA. 2017;0(1):7.
doi: 10.22631/ijaep.v6i3.176
64. Kenefick RW, Cheuvront SN. Hydration for recreational sport and physical activity. Nutrition reviews. 2012;70:S137-S42.
doi: 10.1111/j.1753-4887.2012.00523.x
65. Thomas DT, Erdman KA, Burke LM. Position of the Academy of Nutrition and Dietetics, Dietitians of Canada, and the American College of Sports Medicine: nutrition and athletic performance. Journal of the Academy of Nutrition and Dietetics. 2016;116(3):501-28.
doi: 10.1016/j.jand.2015.12.006
66. Malone JJ, Hulton AT, MacLaren DP. Exogenous carbohydrate and regulation of muscle carbohydrate utilisation during exercise. European journal of applied physiology. 2021;121:1255-69.
doi: 10.1007/s00421-021-04609-4
67. Tarmast D. Effects of commbined sago-soy supplementation on cycling time trial performance in the heat: Doctorate Thesis at Universiti Sains Malaysia; 2016.
http://eprints.usm.my/id/eprint/41729
68. Moitzi AM, König D. Longer-term effects of the glycaemic index on substrate metabolism and performance in endurance athletes. Nutrients. 2023;15(13):3028.
doi: 10.3390/nu15133028
69. Bourdas DI, Souglis A, Zacharakis ED, Geladas ND, Travlos AK. Meta-analysis of carbohydrate solution intake during prolonged exercise in adults: from the last 45+ years’ perspective. Nutrients. 2021;13(12):4223.
doi: 10.3390/nu13124223
70. Rehrer N, Wagenmakers A, Beckers E, Halliday D, Leiper J, Brouns F, et al. Gastric emptying, absorption, and carbohydrate oxidation during prolonged exercise. Journal of Applied Physiology. 1992;72(2):468-75.
doi: 10.1152/jappl.1992.72.2.468
· 71. Murray R, Paul GL, Seifert JG, Eddy DE. Responses to varying rates of carbohydrate ingestion during exercise. Medicine and Science in Sports and Exercise. 1991;23(6):713-8. PMID: 1886479
72. Mitchell J, Costill D, Houmard J, Fink W, Pascoe D, Pearson D. Influence of carbohydrate dosage on exercise performance and glycogen metabolism. Journal of Applied Physiology. 1989;67(5):1843-9.
doi: 10.1152/jappl.1989.67.5.1843
73. Jeukendrup AE, Wagenmakers AJ, Stegen JH, Gijsen AP, Brouns F, Saris WH. Carbohydrate ingestion can completely suppress endogenous glucose production during exercise. American Journal of Physiology-Endocrinology and Metabolism. 1999;276(4):E672-E83.
doi: 10.1152/ajpendo.1999.276.4.E672
74. Burgess WA, Davis JM, Bartoli WP, Woods JA. Failure of low dose carbohydrate feeding to attenuate glucoregulatory hormone responses and improve endurance performance. International Journal of Sport Nutrition and Exercise Metabolism. 1991;1(4):338-52.
doi: 10.1123/ijsn.1.4.338
75. Casa DJ, Armstrong LE, Hillman SK, Montain SJ, Reiff RV, Rich BS, et al. National athletic trainers' association position statement: fluid replacement for athletes. Journal of athletic training. 2000;35(2):212. PMID: 16558633
76. Coyle EF, Montain SJ. Benefits of fluid replacement with carbohydrate during exercise. Medicine and Science in Sports and Exercise. 1992;24:S324-30. PMID: 1406205
77. Hargreaves M. Carbohydrate ingestion and exercise: effects on metabolism and performance. Chinese Journal of Sports Medicine. 2000;19(2):219-23. [Accessed 15 August 2024]; Available from: https://caod.oriprobe.com//articles/2598592/CARBOHYDRATE_INGESTION_AND_EXERCISE__EFFECTS_ON_METABOLISM_AND_PERFOR.htm
78. Coggan AR, Swanson SC. Nutritional manipulations before and during endurance exercise: effects on performance. Medicine and science in sports and exercise. 1992;24(9 Suppl):S331-5. PMID: 1406206
79. Smith JW, Pascoe DD, Passe DH, Ruby BC, Stewart LK, Baker LB, et al. Curvilinear dose-response relationship of carbohydrate (0-120 g·h(-1)) and performance. Med Sci Sports Exerc. 2013;45(2):336-41. Epub 2012/09/13.
doi: 10.1249/MSS.0b013e31827205d1
80. Pérez-Castillo Í M, Williams JA, López-Chicharro J, Mihic N, Rueda R, Bouzamondo H, et al. Compositional Aspects of Beverages Designed to Promote Hydration Before, During, and After Exercise: Concepts Revisited. Nutrients. 2023;16(1). Epub 2024/01/11.
doi: 10.3390/nu16010017
81. Podlogar T, Bokal Š, Cirnski S, Wallis GA. Increased exogenous but unaltered endogenous carbohydrate oxidation with combined fructose-maltodextrin ingested at 120 g h(-1) versus 90 g h(-1) at different ratios. Eur J Appl Physiol. 2022;122(11):2393-401. Epub 2022/08/12.
doi: 10.1007/s00421-022-05019-w
82. Wei RJ, Orbeta L, Hatamiya NS, Chang CJ. Nutritional strategies for endurance cyclists—periodized nutrition, ketogenic diets, and other considerations. Current Sports Medicine Reports. 2023;22(7):248-54.
doi: 10.1249/JSR.0000000000001085
83. Li G, Li Z, Liu J. Amino acids regulating skeletal muscle metabolism: mechanisms of action, physical training dosage recommendations and adverse effects. Nutrition & Metabolism. 2024;21(1):41.
doi: 10.1186/s12986-024-00820-0
84. Ghosh A, Bin R, Jusoh C. Soy protein supplementation during moderate intensity exercise failed to improve the subsequent 15 min time trial power output in hot environment. Journal of Science and Medicine in Sport. 2010;12:e103.
doi: 10.1016/j.jsams.2009.10.212
85. Moore DR, Sygo J, Morton JP. Fuelling the female athlete: Carbohydrate and protein recommendations. European Journal of Sport Science. 2022;22(5):684-96.
doi: 10.1080/17461391.2021.1922508
86. Drăgan I, Stroescu V, Stoian I, Georgescu E, Baloescu R. Studies regarding the efficiency of Supro isolated soy protein in Olympic athletes. Revue Roumaine de Physiologie (Bucharest, Romania: 1990). 1992;29(3-4):63-70. PMID: 1306084
87. Salem A, Trabelsi K, Jahrami H, Alrasheed MM, Boukhris O, Puce L, et al. Branched-chain amino acids supplementation and post-exercise recovery: an overview of systematic reviews. Journal of the American Nutrition Association. 2024;43(4):384-96.
doi: 10.1080/27697061.2023.2297899
88. Ivy JL. Nutrition before, during, and after exercise for the endurance athlete. Essentials of Sports Nutrition and Supplements. 2008:621-46.
doi: 10.1007/978-1-59745-302-8_27
89. Salter AM, Lopez-Viso C. Role of novel protein sources in sustainably meeting future global requirements. Proceedings of the Nutrition Society. 2021;80(2):186-94.
doi: 10.1017/S0029665121000513
90. Kang J. Nutrition and metabolism in sports, exercise and health: Routledge; 2018. ISBN-13 : 978-0415578790
91. Arabzadeh E, Shirvani H, Ebadi Zahmatkesh M, Riyahi Malayeri S, Meftahi GH, Rostamkhani F. Irisin/FNDC5 influences myogenic markers on skeletal muscle following high and moderate-intensity exercise training in STZ-diabetic rats. 3 Biotech. 2022 Sep;12(9):193. doi: 10.1007/s13205-022-03253-9. Epub 2022 Jul 26.
92. Koopman R, Pannemans DL, Jeukendrup AE, Gijsen AP, Senden JM, Halliday D, et al. Combined ingestion of protein and carbohydrate improves protein balance during ultra-endurance exercise. American Journal of Physiology-Endocrinology and Metabolism. 2004;287(4):E712-E20.
doi: 10.1152/ajpendo.00543.2003
93. Kerksick CM, Wilborn CD, Roberts MD, Smith-Ryan A, Kleiner SM, Jäger R, et al. ISSN exercise & sports nutrition review update: research & recommendations. Journal of the international society of sports nutrition. 2018;15:1-57.
doi: 10.1186/s12970-018-0242-y
94. Goldstein E, Stout J, Starling-Smith T, Fukuda D. Carbohydrate-protein coingestion enhances cycling performance with minimal recovery time between bouts of exhaustive intermittent exercise. Journal of Exercise and Nutrition. 2022;5(2).
95. Pinto CL, Botelho PB, Pimentel GD, Campos-Ferraz PL, Mota JF. Creatine supplementation and glycemic control: a systematic review. Amino acids. 2016;48:2103-29.
doi: 10.1007/s00726-016-2277-1
96. Supruniuk E, Żebrowska E, Chabowski A. Branched chain amino acids—friend or foe in the control of energy substrate turnover and insulin sensitivity? Critical Reviews in Food Science and Nutrition. 2023;63(15):2559-97.
doi: 10.1080/10408398.2021.1977910
97. Mason SA, Parker L, Trewin AJ, Wadley GD. Antioxidant Supplements and Exercise Adaptations. Oxidative Eustress in Exercise Physiology: CRC Press; 2022. p. 123-35.
doi: 10.1201/9781003051619-11
98. Zhao Y-C, Gao B-h. Integrative effects of resistance training and endurance training on mitochondrial remodeling in skeletal muscle. European Journal of Applied Physiology. 2024:1-15.
doi: 10.1007/s00421-024-05549-5
99. Neufer PD. The effect of detraining and reduced training on the physiological adaptations to aerobic exercise training. Sports Medicine. 1989;8:302-20.
doi: 10.2165/00007256-198908050-00004
100. Ivy JL, Sprague RC, Widzer MO. Effect of a carbohydrate-protein supplement on endurance performance during exercise of varying intensity. International journal of sport nutrition and exercise metabolism. 2003;13(3):382-95.
101. Kreider RB, Wilborn CD, Taylor L, Campbell B, Almada AL, Collins R, et al. ISSN exercise & sport nutrition review: research & recommendations. Journal of the international society of sports nutrition. 2010;7:1-43.
doi: 10.1186/s12970-018-0242-y
102. Betts JA, Stevenson E, Williams C, Sheppard C, Grey E, Griffin J. Recovery of endurance running capacity: effect of carbohydrate-protein mixtures. International journal of sport nutrition and exercise metabolism. 2005;15(6):590-609.
103. Tipton KD, Ferrando AA, Phillips SM, Doyle Jr D, Wolfe RR. Postexercise net protein synthesis in human muscle from orally administered amino acids. American Journal of Physiology-Endocrinology And Metabolism. 1999. 276(4):E628-34.
doi: 10.1152/ajpendo.1999.276.4.E628
104. Ivy JL, Goforth Jr HW, Damon BM, McCauley TR, Parsons EC, Price TB. Early postexercise muscle glycogen recovery is enhanced with a carbohydrate-protein supplement. Journal of applied physiology. 2002;93(4):1337-44.
doi: 10.1152/japplphysiol.00394.2002
105. Martínez-Lagunas V, Ding Z, Bernard JR, Wang B, Ivy JL. Added protein maintains efficacy of a low-carbohydrate sports drink. The Journal of Strength & Conditioning Research. 2010;24(1):48-59.
doi: 10.1519/JSC.0b013e3181c32e20
106. Saunders MJ, Moore RW, Kies AK, Luden ND, Pratt CA. Carbohydrate and protein hydrolysate coingestion’s improvement of late-exercise time-trial performance. International Journal of Sport Nutrition and Exercise Metabolism. 2009;19(2):136-49.
107. Ferguson-Stegall L, McCleave EL, Ding Z, Kammer LM, Wang B, Doerner PG, et al. The effect of a low carbohydrate beverage with added protein on cycling endurance performance in trained athletes. The Journal of Strength & Conditioning Research. 2010;24(10):2577-86.
doi: 10.1519/JSC.0b013e3181ecccca
108. Romano-Ely BC, Todd MK, Saunders MJ, Laurent TS. Effect of an isocaloric carbohydrate-protein-antioxidant drink on cycling performance. Medicine and science in sports and exercise. 2006;38(9):1608-16.
doi: 10.1249/01.mss.0000229458.11452.e9
109. Van Essen M, Gibala MJ. Failure of protein to improve time trial performance when added to a sports drink. Medicine & Science in Sports & Exercise. 2006;38(8):1476-83.
doi: 10.1249/01.mss.0000228958.82968.0a
110. McLellan TM, Pasiakos SM, Lieberman HR. Effects of protein in combination with carbohydrate supplements on acute or repeat endurance exercise performance: a systematic review. Sports medicine. 2014;44:535-50.
doi: 10.1007/s40279-013-0133-y
111. Madsen K, Maclean DA, Kiens B, Christensen D. Effects of glucose, glucose plus branched-chain amino acids, or placebo on bike performance over 100 km. Journal of Applied Physiology. 1996;81(6):2644-50.
doi: 10.1152/jappl.1996.81.6.2644
112. Hausswirth C, Mujika I. Recovery for performance in sport: Human Kinetics; 2013. ISBN-13 : 978-1450434348
113. Kerksick CM, Arent S, Schoenfeld BJ, Stout JR, Campbell B, Wilborn CD, et al. International Society of Sports Nutrition position stand: nutrient timing. Journal of the international society of sports nutrition. 2017;14:1-21.
doi: 10.1186/s12970-017-0189-4
114. Shyam S, Lee KX, Tan ASW, Khoo TA, Harikrishnan S, Lalani SA, et al. Effect of Personalized Nutrition on Dietary, Physical Activity, and Health Outcomes: A Systematic Review of Randomized Trials. Nutrients. 2022;14(19).
doi: 10.3390/nu14194104
115. Martín-Rodríguez A, Belinchón-deMiguel P, Rubio-Zarapuz A, Tornero-Aguilera JF, Martínez-Guardado I, Villanueva-Tobaldo CV, et al. Advances in Understanding the Interplay between Dietary Practices, Body Composition, and Sports Performance in Athletes. Nutrients. 2024;16(4):571.
doi: 10.3390/nu16040571
