تحلیل انتقادی گفتمان پاناسلامیسم سیاسی در اندیشۀ «مولانا محمد برکتالله بوپالی» (هندوستانی) در کتاب «خلافت» (چاپ 1924 میلادی)
محورهای موضوعی : پژوهش سیاست نظری
محمد محمدزاده ویژه
1
,
مازیار مظفری فلارتی
2
,
حشمت السادات معینی فر
3
,
حمیده مولائی فرسنگی
4
1 - دانشجوی دکتری مطالعات هند، دانشکده مطالعات جهان، دانشگاه تهران، ایران
2 - استادیار گروه مطالعات جنوب و شرق آسیا و اقیانوسیه، دانشکده مطالعات جهان، دانشگاه تهران، ایران
3 - دانشیار گروه مطالعات جنوب و شرق آسیا و اقیانوسیه، دانشکده مطالعات جهان، دانشگاه تهران، ایران
4 - دانشیار گروه مطالعات جنوب و شرق آسیا و اقیانوسیه، دانشکده مطالعات جهان، دانشگاه تهران، ایران
کلید واژه: اسلامگرایی فراملی, پاناسلامیسم, خلافت, رویکرد گفتمان تاریخی و محمد برکتالله. ,
چکیده مقاله :
از منظر تاریخپژوهان، جنگ جهانی اول، نقطه عطفی در تحولات سیاسی-اجتماعی غرب آسیا محسوب میشود. سقوط حکومت عثمانی، شکلگیری دولت- ملتهای سکولار و تضعیف نهاد خلافت، از مهمترین پیامدهای این جنگ ارزیابی شده است. برخی از اسلامگرایان از جمله محمد برکتالله، فروپاشی خلافت عثمانی را خطری جدی برای انسجام امت اسلامی دانسته و بر ضرورت بازاندیشی در مفهوم خلافت تأکید داشتند. پس از انحلال خلافت، برکتالله با طرح ایده «جمهوری خلافت» کوشید تا الگویی نوین برای سازماندهی امت اسلامی در برابر دولت- ملتهای سکولار و امپریالیسم جهانی ارائه دهد. فرضیۀ محوری این پژوهش آن است که مفهوم جمهوری خلافت، مهمترین مؤلفۀ وحدتآفرین در گفتمان پاناسلامیسم برکتالله است. این مقاله با بهرهگیری از رویکرد گفتمان تاریخی «روث ووداک»، کتاب «خلافت» برکتالله را تحلیل کرده و کوشیده به پرسشهای زیر پاسخ دهد: «چگونه برکتالله از نهاد خلافت برای تحکیم اتحاد اسلامی استفاده کرده است؟» و «برکتالله چگونه مفاهیمی مانند کمونیسم معنوی، اتحاد اسلامی و دولت سکولار را در راستای تحقق اهداف پاناسلامیسم توجیه کرده است؟». یافتههای پژوهش نشان میدهد که اندیشه برکتالله دارای دو بعد نظری و عملی است. در بعد عملی، او با ادغام ابعاد معنوی و مادی (مالی) خلافت، راهحلی برای عبور از بحران فروپاشی خلافت ارائه کرده و سه مؤلفه معنویت فردی، اقتصاد کمونیستی و دولت سکولار را در ترکیبی ناهمگون و بدون چارچوب، اما با هدف اتحاد مسلمانان پیشنهاد کرده است. در بعد نظری، گفتمان پاناسلامیستی او بر بازتعریف خلافت استوار است؛ بازتعریفی که خلافت را نه صرفاً نهادی سنتی، بلکه الگویی برای سازماندهی امت اسلامی و مقاومت در برابر ساختار امپریالیسم جهانی معرفی میکند.
Critical Analysis of the Discourse of Political Pan-Islamism in Maulana Muhammad Barakatullah Bhopali’s (Indian) Thought
in the 1924 Book 'The Khilafet'
Mohammad Mohammadzadeh Vizheh *
Maziar Mozaffari Falarti**
Heshmat Saddat Moeinifar***
Hamideh Molaei Farsangi****
From the perspective of historians, the First World War is regarded as a turning point in the political and social transformations of West Asia. The collapse of the Ottoman state, the formation of secular nation-states, and the weakening of the institution of the caliphate are considered among the most significant consequences of this war. Some Islamists, including Muhammad Barkatullah, viewed the disintegration of the Ottoman caliphate as a serious threat to the cohesion of the Islamic ummah and emphasized the necessity of rethinking the concept of the caliphate. Following the abolition of the caliphate, Barkatullah proposed the idea of a “Caliphate Republic” in an attempt to present a new model for organizing the Islamic ummah in opposition to secular nation-states and global imperialism.
The central hypothesis of this study is that the concept of the Caliphate Republic constitutes the most important unifying component in Barkatullah’s pan-Islamist discourse. Employing Ruth Wodak’s Discourse-Historical Approach, this article analyzes Barkatullah’s book The Khilafat and seeks to answer the following questions: “How did Barkatullah use the institution of the caliphate to consolidate Islamic unity?” and “How did Barkatullah justify concepts such as spiritual communism, Islamic unity, and the secular state in pursuit of pan-Islamist objectives?”
The findings indicate that Barkatullah’s thought has both theoretical and practical dimensions. On the practical level, by integrating the spiritual and material (financial) aspects of the caliphate, he proposed a solution to overcome the crisis resulting from its collapse and advanced three components—individual spirituality, a communist economy, and a secular state—in a heterogeneous and unstructured combination, aimed at achieving Muslim unity. On the theoretical level, his pan-Islamist discourse is grounded in a redefinition of the caliphate—one that presents it not merely as a traditional institution, but as a model for organizing the Islamic ummah and resisting the structures of global imperialism.
Keywords: Transnational Islamism; Pan-Islamism; Caliphate; Discourse-Historical Approach; Muhammad Barkatullah.
Introduction
British colonial domination over India represents a paradigmatic case of political, economic, and cultural imperialism in Asia, producing enduring consequences such as economic inequality, social injustice, religious fragmentation, and normative transformation. These conditions, coupled with rising political consciousness and widespread discontent, catalyzed the emergence of anti-colonial movements. Initially reactive to local grievances, these movements gradually evolved into broader ideological discourses by integrating national and religious frameworks. Three principal ideological currents emerged: absolute nationalism, rooted in secular modernity and emphasizing sovereignty, social justice, and economic equity; absolute Islamism, which rejected territorially bounded nationalism as incompatible with the transnational ummah and prioritized Islamic identity; and an intermediate nationalist–Islamist discourse that sought synthesis through shared values like freedom, justice, and resistance to colonialism.
Within this ideological spectrum, Maulana Muhammad Barkatullah Bhopali emerged as a distinctive intellectual figure who bridged Islamism, nationalism, and even socialist thought in the struggle against colonial rule. His 1924 book The Caliphate stands at the intersection of these discourses, reinterpreting the Caliphate not merely as a historical institution but as a political and spiritual project for Muslim unity and anti-colonial mobilization. This study examines Barkatullah’s Pan-Islamist discourse in The Caliphate, analyzing how he redefined Islamic unity in response to the collapse of the Ottoman Caliphate and the pressures of Western imperialism.
Literature Review
This research draws on three interconnected bodies of literature. First, studies on the socio-political context of late 19th- and early 20th-century India and the Islamic world illuminate how British colonial policies marginalized Muslim communities, fueling resistance and alternative ideologies such as nationalism and Pan-Islamism. These works highlight the role of colonialism in reshaping religious and political identities.
Second, scholarship on Pan-Islamism and the Caliphate question reveals that Pan-Islamism was not merely religious idealism but a political response to Western domination and the disintegration of the Ottoman order. The Caliphate, as both symbolic and institutional center of Muslim unity, became a focal point of debate. While Ottoman-centered Pan-Islamism was largely defensive, it inspired diverse intellectual responses: from Rashid Rida’s call for restoration, to Ali Abd al-Raziq’s secular critique, to al-Sanhuri’s reformist reinterpretation. After the Caliphate’s abolition in 1924, the idea of “Islamic unity” increasingly replaced institutional revival.
Third, biographical and analytical works on Barkatullah’s life and activism reveal the deep interconnection between his transnational experiences—spanning Europe, the U.S., and Asia—and his theoretical formulations. His engagement with revolutionary networks, anti-colonial diplomacy, and Marxist ideas shaped a unique vision of Pan-Islamism as both ideological and practical resistance.
Problem Statement
Despite growing interest in anti-colonial thought, Barkatullah remains a relatively understudied figure, particularly regarding his conceptualization of the Caliphate and its role in Pan-Islamist discourse. Central questions remain unexplored: How did Barkatullah reconcile Islamic unity with republican and even socialist ideals? In what ways did he redefine the Caliphate in response to colonialism and the post-Ottoman vacuum? And how did his discourse navigate tensions between spiritual authority, political mobilization, and economic justice? This study addresses these gaps by critically analyzing The Caliphate as both a theoretical text and a political manifesto, situating it within the broader discourse of anti-colonial Pan-Islamism.
Methodology
The study employs Critical Discourse Analysis (CDA), specifically Ruth Wodak’s Discourse-Historical Approach (DHA), to examine the construction and function of key concepts in Barkatullah’s text. DHA emphasizes the dialectical relationship between language, power, ideology, and historical context, asserting that discourse both reflects and reproduces social realities. The approach utilizes five analytical strategies:
Referential (naming and categorization),
Predicational (attribution of qualities),
Argumentation (justification of claims),
Perspectivization (framing of viewpoints), and
Intensification/mitigation (emphasizing or downplaying ideas).
By integrating linguistic analysis with historical and socio-political context, this method enables the uncovering of hidden ideological structures and power dynamics. The central research question is: How was the discourse of Pan-Islamism in Muhammad Barkatullah’s thought formulated and consolidated through specific discursive strategies in connection with historical and anti-colonial contexts?
Findings and Discussion
Analysis of The Caliphate reveals Barkatullah’s effort to reconstruct the institution as a consultative, transnational, and anti-colonial framework grounded in the collective will of the ummah. He distinguishes between the “authentic Caliphate” of early Islam—characterized by service, consultation (shura), equality, and public welfare—and the “Ottoman sultanate,” which he critiques for merging spiritual and temporal power, leading to despotism under rulers like Abdulhamid II.
Barkatullah traces the Caliphate’s decline to both external interference—European powers exploiting ethnic and nationalist divisions—and internal authoritarianism. He views its 1924 abolition not as an isolated event but as the culmination of a long historical process. In redefining the Caliphate, he returns to the “golden age” of the Prophet and the Rightly Guided Caliphs, portraying early Islamic governance as inherently just and egalitarian. Notably, he describes early Muslim economic practices using the term “spiritual communism,” emphasizing communal solidarity and resource equity—concepts resonant with 1920s leftist discourse but framed within Islamic ethics.
Crucially, Barkatullah advocates for a clear separation between religion and politics. He warns that a centralized religious state risks tyranny and instead proposes a secular, law-based state alongside a spiritual Caliphate. This spiritual institution would focus on moral guidance, Qur’anic revival, interfaith peace, and social justice through ethical management of public funds (bayt al-mal), rather than political rule.
However, this model faces significant limitations. By renouncing political authority, the spiritual Caliphate lacks mechanisms for enforcing unity, resisting colonial influence, or resolving intra-Muslim conflicts. His vision, while ideologically rich, appears more as a cautious retreat than a viable political program. The text reflects deep tensions: between Pan-Islamist idealism and geopolitical realism, between Islamic unity and national liberation, and between revolutionary anti-colonialism and institutional feasibility.
Conclusion
Maulana Muhammad Barkatullah Bhopali’s The Caliphate represents a pivotal yet underrecognized contribution to anti-colonial and Islamic political thought. His discourse exemplifies the complex interplay of Islamism, nationalism, and transnational solidarity in the early 20th century. By redefining the Caliphate as a spiritual, consultative, and justice-oriented institution, Barkatullah sought to preserve Islamic identity while adapting to modern realities. Yet his proposal ultimately reveals intellectual ambivalence—a response to crisis rather than a coherent blueprint for action.
This study demonstrates that Barkatullah’s thought cannot be reduced to a single ideology. Instead, it occupies a liminal space where Pan-Islamism, anti-colonial resistance, and socio-economic justice converge. While his vision of a spiritual Caliphate may lack practical enforceability, it remains significant as a moral critique of both colonial domination and authoritarian rule. In an era of fragmented Muslim polities and enduring external intervention, Barkatullah’s call for unity, justice, and ethical governance continues to resonate—albeit as a challenge rather than a solution.
Refrence
Ansari, H. (2014) Maulana Barkatullah Bhopali’s transnationalism: Pan Islamism, colonialism, and radical politics. In Transnational Islam in interwar Europe: Muslim activists and thinkers (pp. 181–209). Palgrave Macmillan. https://doi.org/10.1057/9781137387042_8.
Aydın, C. (2006). Beyond civilization: Pan Islamism, Pan Asianism and the revolt against the West. Journal of Modern European History, 4(2), 204–223.
https://doi.org/10.17104/1611-8944_2006_2_204.
Barakatullah, M. (1970) The Khilafat (Urdu). Society for Pakistan Studies.
Belmekki, B. (2007) The impact of British rule on the Indian Muslim community in the nineteenth century. Revista de Filología Inglesa, (28), 27–46.
https://doi.org/10.1163/22138617-12340266.
Islam, A. (2021) Pan Islamic international cooperation and anticolonialism: South Asia, Turkey, and Southeast Asia. Hamdard Islamicus, 44(1), 9–28.
https://doi.org/10.57144/hi.v44i1.193.
Khalid, A. (2013) Pan Islamism in practice: The rhetoric of Muslim unity and its uses. In E. Özdalga (Ed.), Late Ottoman society: The intellectual legacy (pp. 201–224). Routledge. https://doi.org/10.4324/9780203481387-15.
Khan, S. O. (2007) The “Caliphate question”: British views and policy toward pan Islamic politics and the end of the Ottoman caliphate. American Journal of Islam and Society, 24(4), 1–25. https://doi.org/10.35632/ajis.v24i4.427.
Landau, J. M. (2015) Pan Islam: History and politics. Routledge. https://doi.org/10.4324/9781315680552.
Madhusoodanan, S. (2009) The development of nationalism in the Indian case (Undergraduate honors thesis). University of South Florida.
Rajan, M. S. (1969) The impact of British rule in India. Journal of Contemporary History, 4(1), 89–102.
https://doi.org/10.1177/002200946900400106.
Shamshad, M., & Rehman, A. (2021) Khilafat Movement in sub-continent: A shade of pan-Islamism. The Dialogue, 16(2), 87–98.
Siddiqui, S. (2017) The career of Muhammad Barkatullah (1864–1927): From intellectual to anti-colonial revolutionary (Master’s thesis, University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill). https://doi.org/10.17615/1wsz-2f56.
Siddiqui, S. (2019) Coupled internationalisms: Charting Muhammad Barkatullah’s anti-colonialism and pan-Islamism. ReOrient, 5(1), 25–46.
https://doi.org/10.13169/reorient.5.1.0025.
Soleimani, K. (2016) Islam and competing nationalisms in the Middle East, 1876–1926. Palgrave Macmillan.
https://doi.org/10.1057/978-1-137-59940-7.
Verma, V. (2019) Modernity, colonial injustice and individual responsibility: A study of Gandhi and Ambedkar. In Gandhi and the contemporary world (pp. 113–128). Routledge India. https://doi.org/10.4324/9780367809447-8.
Wodak, R. (2001) The discourse historical approach. In R. Wodak & M. Meyer (Eds.), Methods of critical discourse analysis (pp. 63–94). SAGE.
https://doi.org/10.4135/9780857028020.n4.
Wodak, R. (2015) Critical discourse analysis, discourse-historical approach. In The international encyclopedia of language and social interaction (Vol. 3). Wiley.
https://doi.org/10.1002/9781118611463.wbielsi116.
* Ph.D. Student in Indian Studies, Faculty of World Studies, University of Tehran, Iran.
https://orcid.org/0000-0002-5940-0098
**Corresponding Author: Assistant Professor, Department of South, East Asian and Oceanian Studies, Faculty of World Studies, University of Tehran, Iran.
https://orcid.org/0000-0001-5305-8589
***Associate Professor, Department Department of South, East Asian and Oceanian Studies, Faculty of World Studies, University of Tehran, Iran.
https://orcid.org/0000-0003-4256-3808
****Associate Professor, Department Department of South, East Asian and Oceanian Studies, Faculty of World Studies, University of Tehran, Iran.
Alam, I. (2021). Book review: Syed Ejaz Hussain & Sanjay Garg (eds.), Alternative Arguments: Essays in Honour of Surendra Gopal. Studies in People’s History, 8(2), 266.
https://doi.org/10.1177/23484489211040972. .
Alrianingrum, S., & Liana, C. (2018) Salt briquette: The form of salt monopoly in Madura, 1883–1911. Journal of Physics: Conference Series, 953(1), 012181. https://doi.org/10.1088/1742-6596/953/1/012181. .
Ansari, H. (2014) Maulana Barkatullah Bhopali’s transnationalism: Pan Islamism, colonialism, and radical politics. In Transnational Islam in Interwar Europe: Muslim Activists and Thinkers (pp. 181–209). New York, NY: Palgrave Macmillan US. .
https://doi.org/10.1057/9781137387042_8 . .
Avram, C., & Gavrilă Ciobotea, I. L. (2023) Communism: Doctrine, evolution, political practices. Anuarul Institutului de Cercetări Socio Umane „CS Nicolăescu Plopșor”, 24, 187–198.
https://doi.org/10.59277/csnpissh.2023.14.
Aydın, C. (2006) Beyond civilization: Pan Islamism, Pan Asianism and the revolt against the West. Journal of Modern European History, 4(2), 204–223.
https://doi.org/10.17104/1611-8944_2006_2_204
Bains, S. K. (Ed.). (2013) Interpreting Ghadar: Echoes of voices past: Ghadar Centennial Conference Proceedings, October 2013. Centre for Indo Canadian Studies, University of the Fraser Valley.
https://doi.org/10.5403/oregonhistq.114.4.0518 .
Barakatullah, M. (1970) The Khilafat [In Urdu]. Pakistan: Society for Pakistan Studies.
Bassi, G. (2019) Words of power, the power of words: The twentieth century communist discourse in international perspective (Vol. 6). EUT.
https://doi.org/10.4324/9780367854447-13 .
Belmekki, B. (2007) The impact of British rule on the Indian Muslim community in the nineteenth century. Revista de Filología Inglesa, (28), 27–46. https://doi.org/10.1163/22138617-12340266 Bilal Emre, B. (2009) The British threat to the Ottoman presence in the Persian Gulf during the era of Abdülhamid II and the responses towards it (Master’s thesis, Middle East Technical University) .
Blommaert, J., & Bulcaen, C. (2000). Critical discourse analysis. Annual Review of Anthropology, 29(1), 447–466. https://doi.org/10.1146/annurev.anthro.29.1.447 .
Cesari, J. (2021) Political Islam: More than Islamism. Religions, 12(5), 299. https://doi.org/10.3390/rel12050299 .
Fortna, B. C., Katsikas, S., Kamouzis, D., & Konortas, P. (Eds.). (2013). State nationalisms in the Ottoman Empire, Greece and Turkey: Orthodox and Muslims, 1830–1945 (Vol. 17). London, UK: Routledge. https://doi.org/10.4324/9780203096901 .
Gupta, V., & Guptā, M. (1999) A dictionary of freedom fighters. Radha Publications, New Delhi. ISBN: 9788174871558 .
Islam, A. (2021) Pan Islamic international cooperation and anticolonialism: South Asia, Turkey, and Southeast Asia. Hamdard Islamicus, 44(1). (9-28). https://doi.org/10.57144/hi.v44i1.193 .
Islam, M. (2012) Rethinking the Muslim question in post colonial India. Social Scientist, 40(7/8), 61–84.
http://www.jstor.org/stable/23338859.
Kacowicz, A. M. (1998) Regionalization, globalization and nationalism: Convergent, divergent, or overlapping. Alternatives: Global, Local, Political, 24(4), 527–556. Working Paper No. 262, Helen Kellogg Institute for International Studies.
https://doi.org/10.1177/030437549902400405.
Karpat, K. H. (1972) The transformation of the Ottoman state, 1789–1908. International Journal of Middle East Studies, 3(3), 243–281.
https://doi.org/10.1017/s0020743800025010 .
Kay, S. (2020) Arabia Infelix: Britain, Sharif Hussein and the lost opportunities of Anglo Arab relations, 1916–1924 (Master’s thesis, San Diego State University).
Keyvanoğlu, M. C. (2015) Shifting alliances in Europe from the Congress of Vienna (1815) to the Congress of Berlin (1878), (Master’s thesis). Middle East Technical University, Graduate School of Social Sciences.
Khalid, A. (2013) Pan Islamism in practice: The rhetoric of Muslim unity and its uses. In E. Özdalga (Ed.), Late Ottoman Society (pp. 201–224). London, UK: Routledge. https://doi.org/10.4324/9780203481387-15.
Khan, S. O. (2007) The “Caliphate question”: British views and policy toward pan Islamic politics and the end of the Ottoman caliphate. American Journal of Islam and Society, 24(4), 1–25.
https://doi.org/10.35632/ajis.v24i4.427 .
Kirillina, S. A., Safronova, A. L., & Orlov, V. V. (2022). Caliphate in the ideological dialogue of the Islamic world: The case of Pan Islamic Congress in Cairo (1926) RUDN Journal of World History, 14(1), 7–19.
https://doi.org/10.22363/2312-8127-2022-14-1-7-19 .
Landau, J. M. (2015) Pan Islam: History and politics. London, UK: Routledge. https://doi.org/10.4324/9781315680552 .
Livaoğlu Mengüç, H. (2019) The Egyptian response to the abolition of the caliphate: A press survey. Cumhuriyet Tarihi Araştırmaları Dergisi, 30, (109-133).
https://doi.org/10.9737/hist.2018.681 .
Madhusoodanan, S. (2009) The development of nationalism in the Indian case (Undergraduate honors thesis). University of South Florida, Tampa. Malik, S. U. D. (1966) Mutiny, revolution or Muslim rebellion?: British public reactions towards the Indian crisis of 1857. (PhD Thesis, McGill University, Canada).
Medhananda, S. (2020) Was Swami Vivekananda a Hindu supremacist? Revisiting a long standing debate. Religions, 11(7), 368. https://doi.org/10.3390/rel11070368 .
Norris, P., & Inglehart, R. F. (2012) Muslim integration into Western cultures: Between origins and destinations. Political Studies, 60(2), 228–251. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1467-9248.2012.00951.x
O’Sullivan, M. (2018) Pan Islamic bonds and interest: Ottoman bonds, Red Crescent remittances and the limits of Indian Muslim capital, 1877–1924. The Indian Economic & Social History Review, 55(2), 183–220.
https://doi.org/10.1177/0019464618760453.
Özdalga, E. (Ed.). (2013) Late Ottoman society: The intellectual legacy. London, UK: Routledge.
https://doi.org/10.4324/9780203481387 .
Pankhurst, R. (2013) The inevitable caliphate?: A history of the struggle for global Islamic union, 1924 to the present. Oxford, UK: Oxford University Press.
Piscatori, J. (2005) Imagining pan Islam: Religious activism and political utopias. In Proceedings of the British Academy (Vol. 131, pp. 421–442). Oxford, UK: Oxford University Press.
https://doi.org/10.5871/bacad/9780197263518.003.0015.
Rajan, M. S. (1969) The impact of British rule in India. Journal of Contemporary History, 4(1), 89–102.
https://doi.org/10.1177/002200946900400106 .
Rakhmankulova, Z., Choriev, S., Yusupova, D., & Muminov, O. (2020) The historiography of the relations between Central Asian khanates and Ottoman Empire in the 19th and at the beginning of the 20th centuries. International Journal of Scientific and Technology Research, 9(2), 311–318.
Raul, A. K. (2013) Swami Vivekananda on India as a nation. IOSR Journal of Humanities and Social Science (IOSR-JHSS), Volume 9, Issue 3 (Mar.- Apr. 2013), PP 25-28.
https://doi.org/10.9790/0837-0932528 .
Razek, A. A. (2012) Islam and the foundations of political power. Edinburgh, UK: Edinburgh University Press.
https://doi.org/10.1111/rsr.12484.
Reisigl, M. (2017) The discourse historical approach. In J. Flowerdew & J. Richardson (Eds.), The Routledge Handbook of Critical Discourse Studies (pp. 44–59). London, UK: Routledge.
https://doi.org/10.4324/9781315739342-4.
Shamshad, M., & Rehman, A. (2021) Khilafat Movement in sub continent: A shade of pan Islamism. The Dialogue, 16(2), 87–98.
Siddiqui, S. (2022) Parallel lives or interconnected histories? Anagarika Dharmapala and Muhammad Barkatullah’s ‘world religioning’ in Japan. Modern Asian Studies, 56(4), 1329–1352.
https://doi.org/10.1017/s0026749x21000330 .
Siddiqui, S. (2019) Coupled internationalisms: Charting Muhammad Barkatullah's anti colonialism and pan Islamism. ReOrient, 5(1), 25–46.
.https://doi.org/10.13169/reorient.5.1.0025 .
Siddiqui, S. (2017) the career of muhammad barkatullah (1864-1927): from intellectual to anticolonial revolutionary. (Master Thises, University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill).
https://doi.org/10.17615/1wsz-2f56 .
Soleimani, K. (2016) Islam and competing nationalisms in the Middle East, 1876–1926 (p. 93). New York, NY: Palgrave Macmillan.
https://doi.org/10.1057/978-1-137-59940-7 .
Venkateswaran, Chaitanya (2024) Moderates, Radicals and the Making of Indian Anti-Colonial Narratives in Post-World War 1 America. American University. Educational resource. https://doi.org/10.57912/26039428 .
Verma, V. (2019). Modernity, colonial injustice and individual responsibility: A study of Gandhi and Ambedkar. In Gandhi and the Contemporary World (pp. 113-128). Routledge India.
https://doi.org/10.4324/9780367809447-8 .
Wodak, R. (2016) Suppression of the Nazi past, coded languages and discourses of silence: Applying the discourse historical approach to post war antisemitism in Austria. In The Holocaust in the Twenty First Century (pp. 211–234) London, UK: Routledge.
https://doi.org/10.4135/9780857028020.n4 .
Wodak, R. (2015) Critical discourse analysis, discourse historical approach. In The International Encyclopedia of Language and Social Interaction (Vol. 3). Lancaster University, UK.
https://doi.org/10.1002/9781118611463.wbielsi116 .
Wodak, R. (2012) Language, power and identity. Language Teaching, 45(2), 215–233.https://doi.org/10.1017/s0261444811000048 .
Wodak, R. (2001) The discourse historical approach. In Methods of Critical Discourse Analysis (Vol. 1, pp. 63–94). SAGE Publications. https://doi.org/10.4135/9780857028020.n4 .
Yıldızeli, F. B. (2018) A comparative analysis on Sultan Abdülhamid II and William, E Gladstone. Journal of History School, (316-336). http://dx.doi.org/10.14225/Joh1436.
Yılmaz, H. (2018) Caliphate redefined: The mystical turn in Ottoman political thought. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press.
https://doi.org/10.1017/s0034670518000451 .
