Effect of Carbohydrate, Protein and Their Combined Supplementations on Cycling Performance: A Brief Review
محورهای موضوعی : تغذیه ورزشی
Daniel Tarmast
1
,
Asok Kumar Ghosh
2
1 - Assistant Professor, Department of Physical Education & Sport Sciences, Faculty of Humanities, Parand Branch, Islamic Azad University, Parand, Tehran, Iran
2 - Department of Sports Science and Yoga, School of Rehabilitation Sciences and Physical Education, Ramakrishna Mission Vivekananda University, Belur Math, Howrah, West Bengal 711202, India.
کلید واژه: Carbohydrate, Protein, Carbohydrate-Protein Ingestion, Cycling,
چکیده مقاله :
This review illustrates the impact of carbohydrate (CHO) and protein (PRO) supplementation on cycling performance. Strategic nutritional planning greatly benefits endurance athletes, particularly cyclists, as it underscores the critical role of macronutrient consumption in improving on the track/road performance and recovery. CHO is the primary energy source for prolonged cycling, as they are crucial for preserving optimal performance by preventing glycogen depletion and delaying fatigue. The efficacy of CHO is significantly influenced by their glycemic index (GI). High-GI CHO offers a rapid energy source that facilitates muscle glycogen resynthesis and sustained performance. Research suggests that high-GI CHO can increase muscle glycogen levels by up to 40% within four hours, underscoring their significance during and after pedaling. PRO, although not the primary energy source, is essential for synthesizing and repairing muscles, particularly during prolonged and intensive cycling. Incorporating essential amino acids to facilitate recovery is imperative, as they aid in muscle protein synthesis and mitigate muscle fatigue. Recent studies have demonstrated that PRO supplements, especially after pedaling, significantly enhance muscle glycogen and protein synthesis replenishment, leading to quicker recovery and improved performance during cycling sessions. The synergistic benefits of the combined supplementation of CHO and PRO are greater than those of each macronutrient alone. This combination improves endurance, delays fatigue, and ensures more efficient recovery by increasing glycogen storage, accelerating recovery, and enhancing muscle protein synthesis. The optimization of the benefits of these supplements is contingent upon the timing, dosage, and composition. Glycogen replenishment and muscle protein synthesis are optimized by consuming CHO and PRO immediately prior to and following exercise. This is particularly true for high-GI carbohydrates, such as glucose, and swiftly assimilated PRO, such as whey. In conclusion, this review provides practical recommendations for cyclists seeking to optimize their nutritional strategies by synthesizing findings from various studies. Cyclists can enhance their overall performance and achieve long-term athletic success by developing effective dietary plans that improve endurance, defer fatigue, and facilitate efficient recovery, facilitated by understanding the complex interactions between these macronutrients.
This review illustrates the impact of carbohydrate (CHO) and protein (PRO) supplementation on cycling performance. Strategic nutritional planning greatly benefits endurance athletes, particularly cyclists, as it underscores the critical role of macronutrient consumption in improving on the track/road performance and recovery. CHO is the primary energy source for prolonged cycling, as they are crucial for preserving optimal performance by preventing glycogen depletion and delaying fatigue. The efficacy of CHO is significantly influenced by their glycemic index (GI). High-GI CHO offers a rapid energy source that facilitates muscle glycogen resynthesis and sustained performance. Research suggests that high-GI CHO can increase muscle glycogen levels by up to 40% within four hours, underscoring their significance during and after pedaling. PRO, although not the primary energy source, is essential for synthesizing and repairing muscles, particularly during prolonged and intensive cycling. Incorporating essential amino acids to facilitate recovery is imperative, as they aid in muscle protein synthesis and mitigate muscle fatigue. Recent studies have demonstrated that PRO supplements, especially after pedaling, significantly enhance muscle glycogen and protein synthesis replenishment, leading to quicker recovery and improved performance during cycling sessions. The synergistic benefits of the combined supplementation of CHO and PRO are greater than those of each macronutrient alone. This combination improves endurance, delays fatigue, and ensures more efficient recovery by increasing glycogen storage, accelerating recovery, and enhancing muscle protein synthesis. The optimization of the benefits of these supplements is contingent upon the timing, dosage, and composition. Glycogen replenishment and muscle protein synthesis are optimized by consuming CHO and PRO immediately prior to and following exercise. This is particularly true for high-GI carbohydrates, such as glucose, and swiftly assimilated PRO, such as whey. In conclusion, this review provides practical recommendations for cyclists seeking to optimize their nutritional strategies by synthesizing findings from various studies. Cyclists can enhance their overall performance and achieve long-term athletic success by developing effective dietary plans that improve endurance, defer fatigue, and facilitate efficient recovery, facilitated by understanding the complex interactions between these macronutrients.
1. Craig NP, Norton KI. Characteristics of track cycling. Sports Medicine. 2001;31:457-68.
doi: 10.2165/00007256-200131070-00001
2. Vogt S, Schumacher Y, Roecker K, Dickhuth H-H, Schoberer U, Schmid A, et al. Power output during the Tour de France. International journal of sports medicine. 2007;28(09):756-61.
doi: 10.1055/s-2007-964982
3. Atkinson G, Davison R, Jeukendrup A, Passfield L. Science and cycling: current knowledge and future directions for research. Journal of sports sciences. 2003;21(9):767-87.
doi: 10.1080/0264041031000102097
4. Tarmast D, Ghosh AK. The Impact of Carbohydrate, Protein, and Combined Carbohydrate-Protein Supplementation on Muscle Damage and Oxidative Stress Markers During Prolonged Cycling Performance in the Heat. Asian J Sports Med. 2024;15(2):e144084. Epub 2024-08-01.
doi: 10.5812/asjsm-144084
5. Jeukendrup AE. Carbohydrate intake during exercise and performance. Nutrition. 2004;20(7-8):669-77.
doi: 10.1016/j.nut.2004.04.017
6. Camera DM. Evaluating the effects of increased protein intake on muscle strength, hypertrophy and power adaptations with concurrent training: a narrative review. Sports Medicine. 2022;52(3):441-61.
doi: 10.1007/s40279-021-01585-9
7. Place N, Westerblad H. Metabolic Factors in Skeletal Muscle Fatigue. Exercise Metabolism: Springer; 2022. p. 377-99.
doi: 10.1007/978-3-030-94305-9_17
8. Amawi A, AlKasasbeh W, Jaradat M, Almasri A, Alobaidi S, Hammad AA, et al. Athletes’ nutritional demands: a narrative review of nutritional requirements. Frontiers in Nutrition. 2024;10:1331854.
doi: 10.3389/fnut.2023.1331854
9. Williams JH, Batts TW, Lees S. Reduced muscle glycogen differentially affects exercise performance and muscle fatigue. International Scholarly Research Notices. 2013;2013(1):371235.
doi: 10.1155/2013/371235
10. Burke LM, Claassen A, Hawley JA, Noakes TD. Carbohydrate intake during prolonged cycling minimizes effect of glycemic index of preexercise meal. Journal of Applied Physiology. 1998;85(6):2220-6.
doi: 10.1152/jappl.1998.85.6.2220
11. Craven J, Desbrow B, Sabapathy S, Bellinger P, McCartney D, Irwin C. The effect of consuming carbohydrate with and without protein on the rate of muscle glycogen re-synthesis during short-term post-exercise recovery: A systematic review and meta-analysis. Sports Medicine-Open. 2021;7:1-15.
doi: 10.1186/s40798-020-00297-0
12. Jentjens R, Jeukendrup AE. Determinants of post-exercise glycogen synthesis during short-term recovery. Sports Medicine. 2003;33:117-44.
doi: 10.2165/00007256-200333020-00004
13. Chen J, Zhou R, Feng Y, Cheng L. Molecular mechanisms of exercise contributing to tissue regeneration. Signal Transduction and Targeted Therapy. 2022;7(1):383.
doi: 10.1038/s41392-022-01233-2
14. Peake JM, Neubauer O, Della Gatta PA, Nosaka K. Muscle damage and inflammation during recovery from exercise. Journal of applied physiology. 2017. 122(3):559-570.
doi: 10.1152/japplphysiol.00971.2016
15. Sollie O, Jeppesen PB, Tangen DS, Jernerén F, Nellemann B, Valsdottir D, et al. Protein intake in the early recovery period after exhaustive exercise improves performance the following day. Journal of applied physiology. 2018. 125(6):1731-1742.
doi: 10.1152/japplphysiol.01132.2017
16. Pasiakos SM, Lieberman HR, McLellan TM. Effects of protein supplements on muscle damage, soreness and recovery of muscle function and physical performance: a systematic review. Sports medicine. 2014;44:655-70.
doi: 10.1007/s40279-013-0137-7
17. Kumar V, Atherton P, Smith K, Rennie MJ. Human muscle protein synthesis and breakdown during and after exercise. Journal of applied physiology. 2009;106(6):2026-39.
doi: 10.1152/japplphysiol.91481.2008
18. Lin Y-N, Tseng T-T, Knuiman P, Chan WP, Wu S-H, Tsai C-L, et al. Protein supplementation increases adaptations to endurance training: A systematic review and meta-analysis. Clinical Nutrition. 2021;40(5):3123-32.
doi: 10.1016/j.clnu.2020.12.012
19. Tarmast D. Metabolism and nutrients intake in adolescents in exercise: Proteins. The 4th National Conference on Applied Research in Physical Education, Sport & Athletic Science; Tehran, Iran2019. ID: PESSO04_006
20. Jäger R, Kerksick CM, Campbell BI, Cribb PJ, Wells SD, Skwiat TM, et al. International society of sports nutrition position stand: protein and exercise. Journal of the International Society of Sports Nutrition. 2017;14:1-25.
doi: 10.1186/s12970-017-0177-8
21. Ghosh AK, Rahaman AA, Singh R. Combination of sago and soy-protein supplementation during endurance cycling exercise and subsequent high-intensity endurance capacity. International journal of sport nutrition and exercise metabolism. 2010;20(3):216-23.
doi: 10.1123/ijsnem.20.3.216
22. Tarmast D, Ghosh AK, Chen CK. Effect of Iso–Caloric Sago and Soy Supplementations during 90 Minutes Steady–State Cycling on Subsequent 20–km Cycling Time Trial Performance in the Heat. Journal of Sports Physiology and Athletic Conditioning. 2021;2(1):1-15.
doi: 10.61186/jspac.21112.1.2.1
23. Naderi A, Gobbi N, Ali A, Berjisian E, Hamidvand A, Forbes SC, et al. Carbohydrates and endurance exercise: A narrative review of a food first approach. Nutrients. 2023;15(6):1367.
doi: 10.3390/nu15061367
24. Moreno-Pérez D, López-Samanes Á, Larrosa M, Larumbe-Zabala E, Centeno A, Roberts J, et al. Effects of protein–carbohydrate vs. carbohydrate alone supplementation on immune inflammation markers in endurance athletes: a randomized controlled trial. European Journal of Applied Physiology. 2023;123(7):1495-505.
doi: 10.1007/s00421-023-05168-6
25. Berardi JM, Price TB, Noreen EE, Lemon PW. Postexercise Muscle Glycogen Recovery Enhanced with a Carboyhydrate-Protein Supplement. Medicine and science in sports and exercise. 2006;38(6):1106.
doi: 10.1249/01.mss.0000222826.49358.f3
26. Zawadzki K, Yaspelkis 3rd B, Ivy J. Carbohydrate-protein complex increases the rate of muscle glycogen storage after exercise. Journal of applied physiology. 1992;72(5):1854-9.
doi: 10.1152/jappl.1992.72.5.1854
27. Betts JA, Toone RJ, Stokes KA, Thompson D. Systemic indices of skeletal muscle damage and recovery of muscle function after exercise: effect of combined carbohydrate–protein ingestion. Applied Physiology, Nutrition, and Metabolism. 2009;34(4):773-84.
doi: 10.1139/H09-070
28. Hosseini M, Ghasem Zadeh Khorasani N, Divkan B, Riyahi Malayeri S. Interactive Effect of High Intensity Interval Training with Vitamin E Consumption on the Serum Levels of Hsp70 and SOD in Male Wistar Rats. Iranian J Nutr Sci Food Technol 2019; 13 (4) :21-28
29. Ivy JL. Nutrient timing: The future of sports nutrition: Basic Health Publications, Inc.; 2004.
ISBN-13 : 978-1591201410
30. Nielsen LLK, Lambert MNT, Jeppesen PB. The effect of ingesting carbohydrate and proteins on athletic performance: A systematic review and meta-analysis of randomized controlled trials. Nutrients. 2020;12(5):1483.
doi: 10.3390/nu12051483
31. Saunders MJ, Kane MD, Todd MK. Effects of a carbohydrate-protein beverage on cycling endurance and muscle damage. Medicine & Science in Sports & Exercise. 2004;36(7):1233-8.
doi: 10.1249/01.mss.0000132377.66177.9f
32. Holesh JE, Aslam S, Martin A. Physiology, Carbohydrates. StatPearls. Treasure Island (FL) ineligible companies. Disclosure: Sanah Aslam declares no relevant financial relationships with ineligible companies. Disclosure: Andrew Martin declares no relevant financial relationships with ineligible companies.: StatPearls Publishing LLC.; 2024. Bookshelf ID: NBK459280, PMID: 29083823
33. LaPelusa A, Kaushik R. Physiology, Proteins. StatPearls. Treasure Island (FL) ineligible companies. Disclosure: Ravi Kaushik declares no relevant financial relationships with ineligible companies. StatPearls Publishing LLC.; 2024. Bookshelf ID: NBK551511, PMID: 31855355
34. Garcia-Roves P, Terrados N, Fernandez S, Patterson A. Macronutrients intake of top level cyclists during continuous competition-change in the feeding pattern. International Journal of Sports Medicine. 1998;19(01):61-7.
doi: 10.1055/s-2007-971882
35. Cole M, Carter JL, Podlogar T, Fell JM, Gough LA. Macronutrients for Training and Racing. Nutrition and Supplements in Cycling: Routledge; 2024. p. 17-36.
ISBN-13 : 978-103245107
36. Tarmast D. Metabolism and nutrients intake in adolescents in exercise: Carbohydrates. The 4th National Conference on Novel Approaches to Education and Research; Amol, Mazandaran, Iran2019. ID: NERA04_474
37. King AJ, Hall RC. Nutrition and indoor cycling: a cross-sectional analysis of carbohydrate intake for online racing and training. British Journal of Nutrition. 2022;127(8):1204-13.
doi: 10.1017/S0007114521001860
38. Coyle EF, Jeukendrup AE, Oseto MC, Hodgkinson BJ, Zderic TW. Low-fat diet alters intramuscular substrates and reduces lipolysis and fat oxidation during exercise. American Journal of Physiology-Endocrinology And Metabolism. 2001;280(3):E391-E8.
doi: 10.1152/ajpendo.2001.280.3.E391
39. Moitzi AM, Krššák M, Klepochova R, Triska C, Csapo R, König D. Effects of a 10-Week Exercise and Nutritional Intervention with Variable Dietary Carbohydrates and Glycaemic Indices on Substrate Metabolism, Glycogen Storage, and Endurance Performance in Men: A Randomized Controlled Trial. Sports Medicine-Open. 2024;10(1):36.
doi: 10.1186/s40798-024-00705-9
40. Sun F-H, Li C, Zhang Y-J, Wong SH-S, Wang L. Effect of glycemic index of breakfast on energy intake at subsequent meal among healthy people: a meta-analysis. Nutrients. 2016;8(1):37.
doi: 10.3390/nu8010037
41. Zhang J-Y, Jiang Y-T, Liu Y-S, Chang Q, Zhao Y-H, Wu Q-J. The association between glycemic index, glycemic load, and metabolic syndrome: a systematic review and dose–response meta-analysis of observational studies. European journal of nutrition. 2020;59:451-63.
doi: 10.1007/s00394-019-02124-z
42. Jenkins DJ, Wolever T, Taylor RH, Barker H, Fielden H, Baldwin JM, et al. Glycemic index of foods: a physiological basis for carbohydrate exchange. The American journal of clinical nutrition. 1981;34(3):362-6.
doi: 10.1093/ajcn/34.3.362
43. Oba M, Kammes-Main K. Symposium review: Effects of carbohydrate digestion on feed intake and fuel supply. Journal of dairy science. 2023;106(3):2153-60.
doi: 10.3168/jds.2022-22420
44. Ludwig DS, Majzoub JA, Al-Zahrani A, Dallal GE, Blanco I, Roberts SB. High glycemic index foods, overeating, and obesity. Pediatrics. 1999;103(3):e26-e.
doi: 10.1542/peds.103.3.e26
45. Volek J. Enhancing exercise performance: nutritional implications. Exercise and Sport Science. 2000:471-86.
46. O’Reilly J, Wong SH, Chen Y. Glycaemic index, glycaemic load and exercise performance. Sports Medicine. 2010;40:27-39.
doi: 10.2165/11319660-000000000-00000
47. Ludwig DS. Glycemic load comes of age. The Journal of Nutrition. 2003;133(9):2695-6.
doi: 10.1093/jn/133.9.2695
48. Foster-Powell K, Holt SH, Brand-Miller JC. International table of glycemic index and glycemic load values: 2002. The American journal of clinical nutrition. 2002;76(1):5-56.
doi: 10.1093/ajcn/76.1.5
49. Erith S, Williams C, Stevenson E, Chamberlain S, Crews P, Rushbury I. The effect of high carbohydrate meals with different glycemic indices on recovery of performance during prolonged intermittent high-intensity shuttle running. International journal of sport nutrition and exercise metabolism. 2006;16(4):393-404.
doi: 10.1123/ijsnem.16.4.393
50. Coyle EF, Coggan AR, Hemmert M, Lowe RC, Walters TJ. Substrate usage during prolonged exercise following a preexercise meal. Journal of applied physiology. 1985;59(2):429-33.
doi: 10.1152/jappl.1985.59.2.429
51. Coyle EF, Coggan AR, Hemmert MK, Ivy JL. Muscle glycogen utilization during prolonged strenuous exercise when fed carbohydrate. J Appl Physiol (1985). 1986;61(1):165-72.
doi: 10.1152/jappl.1986.61.1.165
52. Burke L. Practical issues in nutrition for athletes. Journal of Sports Sciences. 1995;13(S1):S83-S90.
doi: 10.1080/02640419508732281
53. Burke LM, Collier GR, Davis PG, Fricker PA, Sanigorski AJ, Hargreaves M. Muscle glycogen storage after prolonged exercise: effect of the frequency of carbohydrate feedings. The American journal of clinical nutrition. 1996;64(1):115-9.
doi: 10.1152/jappl.1993.75.2.1019
54. Kushnick MR, Jackson AC, Stamford BA, Venkatachalam M, Zhang G, Hamaker B. Glycemic Response To Fast And Slow Digestible Carbohydrate In High And Low Aerobic Fitness Men, Medicine & Science in Sports & Exercise. 2008;40(5):S455.
doi: 10.1249/01.mss.0000322933.00002.e1
55. Flockhart M, Larsen FJ. Continuous glucose monitoring in endurance athletes: interpretation and relevance of measurements for improving performance and health. Sports Medicine. 2024;54(2):247-55.
doi: 10.1007/s40279-023-01910-4
56. Jeukendrup AE. Carbohydrate feeding during exercise. European Journal of Sport Science. 2008;8(2):77-86.
doi: 10.1080/17461390801918971
57. Wagenmakers A, Brouns F, Saris W, Halliday D. Oxidation rates of orally ingested carbohydrates during prolonged exercise in men. Journal of Applied Physiology. 1993;75(6):2774-80.
doi: 10.1152/jappl.1993.75.6.2774
58. Murray R, Paul GL, Seifert JG, Eddy DE, Halaby GA. The effects of glucose, fructose, and sucrose ingestion during exercise. Medicine and Science in Sports and Exercise. 1989;21(3):275-82. PMID: 2733576
59. Leijssen D, Saris W, Jeukendrup AE, Wagenmakers A. Oxidation of exogenous [13C] galactose and [13C] glucose during exercise. Journal of Applied Physiology. 1995;79(3):720-5.
doi: 10.1152/jappl.1995.79.3.720
60. Jeukendrup A, Gleeson M. Sport Nutrition: Human Kinetics; 2024. ISBN-13 : 978-1718221703
61. Saris W, Goodpaster B, Jeukendrup A, Brouns F, Halliday D, Wagenmakers A. Exogenous carbohydrate oxidation from different carbohydrate sources during exercise. Journal of Applied Physiology. 1993;75(5):2168-72.
doi: 10.1152/jappl.1993.75.5.2168
62. Lugo M, Sherman WM, Wimer GS, Garleb K. Metabolic responses when different forms of carbohydrate energy are consumed during cycling. International Journal of Sport Nutrition and Exercise Metabolism. 1993;3(4):398-407.
doi: 10.1123/ijsn.3.4.398
63. Tarmast D, Ghosh AK, Chen CK. Metabolic Responses to Sago, Soy and Sago+Soy Combined Supplementations during Endurance Cycling Performance Followed by Time Trial Performance in the Heat. International Conference of Sports Science- AESA. 2017;0(1):7.
doi: 10.22631/ijaep.v6i3.176
64. Kenefick RW, Cheuvront SN. Hydration for recreational sport and physical activity. Nutrition reviews. 2012;70:S137-S42.
doi: 10.1111/j.1753-4887.2012.00523.x
65. Thomas DT, Erdman KA, Burke LM. Position of the Academy of Nutrition and Dietetics, Dietitians of Canada, and the American College of Sports Medicine: nutrition and athletic performance. Journal of the Academy of Nutrition and Dietetics. 2016;116(3):501-28.
doi: 10.1016/j.jand.2015.12.006
66. Malone JJ, Hulton AT, MacLaren DP. Exogenous carbohydrate and regulation of muscle carbohydrate utilisation during exercise. European journal of applied physiology. 2021;121:1255-69.
doi: 10.1007/s00421-021-04609-4
67. Tarmast D. Effects of commbined sago-soy supplementation on cycling time trial performance in the heat: Doctorate Thesis at Universiti Sains Malaysia; 2016.
http://eprints.usm.my/id/eprint/41729
68. Moitzi AM, König D. Longer-term effects of the glycaemic index on substrate metabolism and performance in endurance athletes. Nutrients. 2023;15(13):3028.
doi: 10.3390/nu15133028
69. Bourdas DI, Souglis A, Zacharakis ED, Geladas ND, Travlos AK. Meta-analysis of carbohydrate solution intake during prolonged exercise in adults: from the last 45+ years’ perspective. Nutrients. 2021;13(12):4223.
doi: 10.3390/nu13124223
70. Rehrer N, Wagenmakers A, Beckers E, Halliday D, Leiper J, Brouns F, et al. Gastric emptying, absorption, and carbohydrate oxidation during prolonged exercise. Journal of Applied Physiology. 1992;72(2):468-75.
doi: 10.1152/jappl.1992.72.2.468
• 71. Murray R, Paul GL, Seifert JG, Eddy DE. Responses to varying rates of carbohydrate ingestion during exercise. Medicine and Science in Sports and Exercise. 1991;23(6):713-8. PMID: 1886479
72. Mitchell J, Costill D, Houmard J, Fink W, Pascoe D, Pearson D. Influence of carbohydrate dosage on exercise performance and glycogen metabolism. Journal of Applied Physiology. 1989;67(5):1843-9.
doi: 10.1152/jappl.1989.67.5.1843
73. Jeukendrup AE, Wagenmakers AJ, Stegen JH, Gijsen AP, Brouns F, Saris WH. Carbohydrate ingestion can completely suppress endogenous glucose production during exercise. American Journal of Physiology-Endocrinology and Metabolism. 1999;276(4):E672-E83.
doi: 10.1152/ajpendo.1999.276.4.E672
74. Burgess WA, Davis JM, Bartoli WP, Woods JA. Failure of low dose carbohydrate feeding to attenuate glucoregulatory hormone responses and improve endurance performance. International Journal of Sport Nutrition and Exercise Metabolism. 1991;1(4):338-52.
doi: 10.1123/ijsn.1.4.338
75. Casa DJ, Armstrong LE, Hillman SK, Montain SJ, Reiff RV, Rich BS, et al. National athletic trainers' association position statement: fluid replacement for athletes. Journal of athletic training. 2000;35(2):212. PMID: 16558633
76. Coyle EF, Montain SJ. Benefits of fluid replacement with carbohydrate during exercise. Medicine and Science in Sports and Exercise. 1992;24:S324-30. PMID: 1406205
77. Hargreaves M. Carbohydrate ingestion and exercise: effects on metabolism and performance. Chinese Journal of Sports Medicine. 2000;19(2):219-23. [Accessed 15 August 2024]; Available from: https://caod.oriprobe.com//articles/2598592/CARBOHYDRATE_INGESTION_AND_EXERCISE__EFFECTS_ON_METABOLISM_AND_PERFOR.htm
78. Coggan AR, Swanson SC. Nutritional manipulations before and during endurance exercise: effects on performance. Medicine and science in sports and exercise. 1992;24(9 Suppl):S331-5. PMID: 1406206
79. Smith JW, Pascoe DD, Passe DH, Ruby BC, Stewart LK, Baker LB, et al. Curvilinear dose-response relationship of carbohydrate (0-120 g·h(-1)) and performance. Med Sci Sports Exerc. 2013;45(2):336-41. Epub 2012/09/13.
doi: 10.1249/MSS.0b013e31827205d1
80. Pérez-Castillo Í M, Williams JA, López-Chicharro J, Mihic N, Rueda R, Bouzamondo H, et al. Compositional Aspects of Beverages Designed to Promote Hydration Before, During, and After Exercise: Concepts Revisited. Nutrients. 2023;16(1). Epub 2024/01/11.
doi: 10.3390/nu16010017
81. Podlogar T, Bokal Š, Cirnski S, Wallis GA. Increased exogenous but unaltered endogenous carbohydrate oxidation with combined fructose-maltodextrin ingested at 120 g h(-1) versus 90 g h(-1) at different ratios. Eur J Appl Physiol. 2022;122(11):2393-401. Epub 2022/08/12.
doi: 10.1007/s00421-022-05019-w
82. Wei RJ, Orbeta L, Hatamiya NS, Chang CJ. Nutritional strategies for endurance cyclists—periodized nutrition, ketogenic diets, and other considerations. Current Sports Medicine Reports. 2023;22(7):248-54.
doi: 10.1249/JSR.0000000000001085
83. Li G, Li Z, Liu J. Amino acids regulating skeletal muscle metabolism: mechanisms of action, physical training dosage recommendations and adverse effects. Nutrition & Metabolism. 2024;21(1):41.
doi: 10.1186/s12986-024-00820-0
84. Ghosh A, Bin R, Jusoh C. Soy protein supplementation during moderate intensity exercise failed to improve the subsequent 15 min time trial power output in hot environment. Journal of Science and Medicine in Sport. 2010;12:e103.
doi: 10.1016/j.jsams.2009.10.212
85. Moore DR, Sygo J, Morton JP. Fuelling the female athlete: Carbohydrate and protein recommendations. European Journal of Sport Science. 2022;22(5):684-96.
doi: 10.1080/17461391.2021.1922508
86. Drăgan I, Stroescu V, Stoian I, Georgescu E, Baloescu R. Studies regarding the efficiency of Supro isolated soy protein in Olympic athletes. Revue Roumaine de Physiologie (Bucharest, Romania: 1990). 1992;29(3-4):63-70. PMID: 1306084
87. Salem A, Trabelsi K, Jahrami H, Alrasheed MM, Boukhris O, Puce L, et al. Branched-chain amino acids supplementation and post-exercise recovery: an overview of systematic reviews. Journal of the American Nutrition Association. 2024;43(4):384-96.
doi: 10.1080/27697061.2023.2297899
88. Ivy JL. Nutrition before, during, and after exercise for the endurance athlete. Essentials of Sports Nutrition and Supplements. 2008:621-46.
doi: 10.1007/978-1-59745-302-8_27
89. Salter AM, Lopez-Viso C. Role of novel protein sources in sustainably meeting future global requirements. Proceedings of the Nutrition Society. 2021;80(2):186-94.
doi: 10.1017/S0029665121000513
90. Kang J. Nutrition and metabolism in sports, exercise and health: Routledge; 2018. ISBN-13 : 978-0415578790
91. Arabzadeh E, Shirvani H, Ebadi Zahmatkesh M, Riyahi Malayeri S, Meftahi GH, Rostamkhani F. Irisin/FNDC5 influences myogenic markers on skeletal muscle following high and moderate-intensity exercise training in STZ-diabetic rats. 3 Biotech. 2022 Sep;12(9):193. doi: 10.1007/s13205-022-03253-9. Epub 2022 Jul 26.
92. Koopman R, Pannemans DL, Jeukendrup AE, Gijsen AP, Senden JM, Halliday D, et al. Combined ingestion of protein and carbohydrate improves protein balance during ultra-endurance exercise. American Journal of Physiology-Endocrinology and Metabolism. 2004;287(4):E712-E20.
doi: 10.1152/ajpendo.00543.2003
93. Kerksick CM, Wilborn CD, Roberts MD, Smith-Ryan A, Kleiner SM, Jäger R, et al. ISSN exercise & sports nutrition review update: research & recommendations. Journal of the international society of sports nutrition. 2018;15:1-57.
doi: 10.1186/s12970-018-0242-y
94. Goldstein E, Stout J, Starling-Smith T, Fukuda D. Carbohydrate-protein coingestion enhances cycling performance with minimal recovery time between bouts of exhaustive intermittent exercise. Journal of Exercise and Nutrition. 2022;5(2).
doi: 10.53520/jen2022.103125
95. Pinto CL, Botelho PB, Pimentel GD, Campos-Ferraz PL, Mota JF. Creatine supplementation and glycemic control: a systematic review. Amino acids. 2016;48:2103-29.
doi: 10.1007/s00726-016-2277-1
96. Supruniuk E, Żebrowska E, Chabowski A. Branched chain amino acids—friend or foe in the control of energy substrate turnover and insulin sensitivity? Critical Reviews in Food Science and Nutrition. 2023;63(15):2559-97.
doi: 10.1080/10408398.2021.1977910
97. Mason SA, Parker L, Trewin AJ, Wadley GD. Antioxidant Supplements and Exercise Adaptations. Oxidative Eustress in Exercise Physiology: CRC Press; 2022. p. 123-35.
doi: 10.1201/9781003051619-11
98. Zhao Y-C, Gao B-h. Integrative effects of resistance training and endurance training on mitochondrial remodeling in skeletal muscle. European Journal of Applied Physiology. 2024:1-15.
doi: 10.1007/s00421-024-05549-5
99. Neufer PD. The effect of detraining and reduced training on the physiological adaptations to aerobic exercise training. Sports Medicine. 1989;8:302-20.
doi: 10.2165/00007256-198908050-00004
100. Ivy JL, Sprague RC, Widzer MO. Effect of a carbohydrate-protein supplement on endurance performance during exercise of varying intensity. International journal of sport nutrition and exercise metabolism. 2003;13(3):382-95.
doi: 10.1123/ijsnem.13.3.382
101. Kreider RB, Wilborn CD, Taylor L, Campbell B, Almada AL, Collins R, et al. ISSN exercise & sport nutrition review: research & recommendations. Journal of the international society of sports nutrition. 2010;7:1-43.
doi: 10.1186/s12970-018-0242-y
102. Betts JA, Stevenson E, Williams C, Sheppard C, Grey E, Griffin J. Recovery of endurance running capacity: effect of carbohydrate-protein mixtures. International journal of sport nutrition and exercise metabolism. 2005;15(6):590-609.
doi: 10.1123/ijsnem.15.6.590
103. Tipton KD, Ferrando AA, Phillips SM, Doyle Jr D, Wolfe RR. Postexercise net protein synthesis in human muscle from orally administered amino acids. American Journal of Physiology-Endocrinology And Metabolism. 1999. 276(4):E628-34.
doi: 10.1152/ajpendo.1999.276.4.E628
104. Ivy JL, Goforth Jr HW, Damon BM, McCauley TR, Parsons EC, Price TB. Early postexercise muscle glycogen recovery is enhanced with a carbohydrate-protein supplement. Journal of applied physiology. 2002;93(4):1337-44.
doi: 10.1152/japplphysiol.00394.2002
105. Martínez-Lagunas V, Ding Z, Bernard JR, Wang B, Ivy JL. Added protein maintains efficacy of a low-carbohydrate sports drink. The Journal of Strength & Conditioning Research. 2010;24(1):48-59.
doi: 10.1519/JSC.0b013e3181c32e20
106. Saunders MJ, Moore RW, Kies AK, Luden ND, Pratt CA. Carbohydrate and protein hydrolysate coingestion’s improvement of late-exercise time-trial performance. International Journal of Sport Nutrition and Exercise Metabolism. 2009;19(2):136-49.
doi: 10.1123/ijsnem.19.2.136
107. Ferguson-Stegall L, McCleave EL, Ding Z, Kammer LM, Wang B, Doerner PG, et al. The effect of a low carbohydrate beverage with added protein on cycling endurance performance in trained athletes. The Journal of Strength & Conditioning Research. 2010;24(10):2577-86.
doi: 10.1519/JSC.0b013e3181ecccca
108. Romano-Ely BC, Todd MK, Saunders MJ, Laurent TS. Effect of an isocaloric carbohydrate-protein-antioxidant drink on cycling performance. Medicine and science in sports and exercise. 2006;38(9):1608-16.
doi: 10.1249/01.mss.0000229458.11452.e9
109. Van Essen M, Gibala MJ. Failure of protein to improve time trial performance when added to a sports drink. Medicine & Science in Sports & Exercise. 2006;38(8):1476-83.
doi: 10.1249/01.mss.0000228958.82968.0a
110. McLellan TM, Pasiakos SM, Lieberman HR. Effects of protein in combination with carbohydrate supplements on acute or repeat endurance exercise performance: a systematic review. Sports medicine. 2014;44:535-50.
doi: 10.1007/s40279-013-0133-y
111. Madsen K, Maclean DA, Kiens B, Christensen D. Effects of glucose, glucose plus branched-chain amino acids, or placebo on bike performance over 100 km. Journal of Applied Physiology. 1996;81(6):2644-50.
doi: 10.1152/jappl.1996.81.6.2644
112. Hausswirth C, Mujika I. Recovery for performance in sport: Human Kinetics; 2013. ISBN-13 : 978-1450434348
113. Kerksick CM, Arent S, Schoenfeld BJ, Stout JR, Campbell B, Wilborn CD, et al. International Society of Sports Nutrition position stand: nutrient timing. Journal of the international society of sports nutrition. 2017;14:1-21.
doi: 10.1186/s12970-017-0189-4
114. Shyam S, Lee KX, Tan ASW, Khoo TA, Harikrishnan S, Lalani SA, et al. Effect of Personalized Nutrition on Dietary, Physical Activity, and Health Outcomes: A Systematic Review of Randomized Trials. Nutrients. 2022;14(19).
doi: 10.3390/nu14194104
115. Martín-Rodríguez A, Belinchón-deMiguel P, Rubio-Zarapuz A, Tornero-Aguilera JF, Martínez-Guardado I, Villanueva-Tobaldo CV, et al. Advances in Understanding the Interplay between Dietary Practices, Body Composition, and Sports Performance in Athletes. Nutrients. 2024;16(4):571.
doi: 10.3390/nu16040571
