نقش استعاره جنگ در مفهوم‌‌سازی هومر از سیاست
محورهای موضوعی : نظریه‌ها، روش‌شناسی‌ها و رویکردهای جدید در علوم سیاسی
سیدهاشم منیری
1
,
سید حسین اطهری
2
,
مهدی نجف‌زاده
3
,
روح‌الله اسلامی
4
1 - دانش‌آموخته دکتری علوم سیاسی (گرایش اندیشه‌های سیاسی)، دانشگاه فردوسی مشهد، ایران
2 - دانشیار گروه علوم سیاسی، دانشگاه فردوسی مشهد، ایران
3 - دانشیار گروه علوم سیاسی، دانشگاه فردوسی مشهد، ایران
4 - استادیار گروه علوم سیاسی، دانشگاه فردوسی مشهد، ایران
کلید واژه:
چکیده مقاله :
هدف این پژوهش آن است که به فهم و چرایی کاربرد استعاره‌‌های مفهومی در حوزه‌‌های مختلف سیاست که نمودی از حوزه عمومی است، با فراهم‌‌آوری مدل نظری جورج لیکاف و مارک جانسون بپردازد. گوهر سیاست با عمل در ارتباط است و از دو پیش‌‌فرض فرماندهی و فرمان‌‌برداری و دوست و دشمن تشکیل می‌‌شود. غایت آن نیز ناگزیر از هدفی مشخص و دست‌‌یافتنی که همانا حفاظت از اجتماع و پیروزی در جنگ و سیاست است، استفاده میکند. بنابراین فرایند شناختی و مفهوم‌‌سازی سیاست به وسیله مقوله جنگ فراخوانده می‌‌شود. پرسش اصلی این است که مفهوم‌‌سازی سیاست در ایلیاد هومر بر چه استعاره‌‌های مفهومی استوار است. با مقوله‌‌سازی هشت حوزۀ حمله، دفاع، عقب‌‌نشینی، مانور، ضد حمله، بن‌‌بست، ترک مخاصمه و شکست/ پیروزی، یافته‌‌های تحقیق نشان می‌‌دهد که میتوان استعاره‌‌های مفهومی را که بر اساس رویکرد حسی- حرکتی و برآمده از ذهن بدنمند است، در دو مؤلفه «عمل» (جنگ) به عنوان گوهر سیاست و «سخن‌‌آرایی» مفهوم‌‌سازی کرد. بدین ترتیب حوزۀ مفهومی سیاست (مقصد) برحسب حوزۀ مفهومی جنگ (مبدأ) فهمیده می‌‌شود.
The aim of this research is to understand and explain the reasons behind the use of conceptual metaphors in various domains of politics, which is a manifestation of the public sphere, through the provision of the theoretical model of George Lakoff and Mark Johnson. The essence of politics is connected to action and is composed of two premises: command and obedience, and friend and enemy. Its ultimate goal is inevitably a specific and attainable objective, namely the protection of society and victory in war and politics. Thus, the cognitive process and conceptualization of politics are invoked through the category of war. The primary question is: What conceptual metaphors underpin the conceptualization of politics in Homer’s Iliad? By categorizing eight domains—attack, defense, retreat, maneuver, counterattack, stalemate, truce, and defeat/victory—the findings of the research show that conceptual metaphors, based on the sensory-motor approach and stemming from the embodied mind, can be conceptualized into two components: 'action' (war) as the essence of politics and 'rhetoric.' In this way, the conceptual domain of politics (target) is understood in terms of the conceptual domain of war (source).
Introduction
In its broadest sense, ‘politics’ is an activity through which people
determine, maintain, and reform the general rules governing their lives, thus closely intertwining it with phenomena of conflict and cooperation. To resolve the conflicts, disputes, and issues that arise, a necessary policy must be devised for overcoming them (Heywood, 2021: 9). One possible way of resolving emerging issues and disputes is war. In war, the political arena is divided into two groups, friend/enemy (Schmitt, 2021: 55), with each side attempting to address conflicting needs and opposing interests either through compromise or, ultimately, through warfare. The process, methods, and context for establishing such a framework closely relate to the nature of political science, which is concerned with the exercise of power, authority, collective decision-making, and the allocation of scarce resources. The reflection of such actions, which manifests in the public sphere, society, and the political domain, is linked to language, mind, and culture. Within this framework, the use of metaphorical expressions and the conceptualization of politics, aiming to convey and persuade audiences, emerges not only in daily life but also in political literature. Thus, this study seeks to address the question of what ‘conceptual metaphors’ underpin the conceptualization of politics in the Iliad, attributed to Homer, by identifying, analyzing, and interpreting its metaphorical expressions.
Research Methodology
This study is an applied research conducted using a qualitative-exploratory approach, and the necessary data were gathered through a library-based method. After transcribing the text and converting it into a ‘Word’ document, the corpus was analyzed using ‘corpus linguistics’ as a field within linguistics focused on analyzing large collections of text data (Litosseliti, 2017: 140). Utilizing qualitative data analysis software, the corpus under study was coded, concepts were identified, and categories were established.
Theoretical Framework
Metaphorical thought is pervasive in our mental lives, whether conscious or unconscious, and is commonplace and omnipresent (Lakoff & Johnson, 2021: 286). The widespread presence of political language in society references the role and status of political ideology, particularly politics and its agents, within the political sphere and society. This presence encompasses two frameworks: agency and passivity, with influence being conveyed ‘indirectly’ through the transfer of metaphorical concepts from the speaker to the audience. In the process of conceptual transfer, certain aspects of metaphorical expressions are highlighted, while some aspects of reality are obscured. Understanding what is hidden by metaphor is linked to culture, values, and context, as metaphorical expressions drawn from the ‘source’ are invoked to understand the ‘target’ domain within a cultural framework and alternative prototypes (Kövecses, 2020: 32 & 539). Metaphorical structure, in fact, comprises an inter-domain mapping between a source and a target domain, in which one is understood in terms of the other according to a left-to-right unidirectional principle (Kövecses, 2019: 25), distinguishing it from ‘metonymy,’ which is limited to a single domain (Lakoff & Turner, 2020: 166).
Thus, when we consider politics as ‘war’ or a ‘being,’ we gain the capacity to quantify, categorize, and interpret it. Within the structure of the conceptual metaphor system, the conceptual domain from which we draw metaphorical expressions to comprehend another domain is termed the source domain, while the domain being understood is termed the target domain. The source domain is generally more physical and concrete, while the target domain is more abstract and mental (Croft & Cruse, 2019: 275). Therefore, war is more concrete, physical, and tangible compared to politics. In the corpus of The Iliadand The Odyssey, after examining metaphorical expressions, the conceptual metaphor ‘politics is war’ is identified. Additionally, the key concept of both books is ‘war.
Figure 1:.The hierarchical model of the metaphor "Politics is War"
Thus, the nature of politics is intertwined with war and the concepts of friend and enemy. A study of the Iliad reveals that the conceptual metaphor "politics is war" serves as a tool for understanding the specific cognitive approach to the text in question. This demonstrates that metaphor is closely connected to the nature of language and politics, with roots in human creativity, ideology, and thought.
Figure 2.Structural analogies between the concepts of "war" and "politics" and their linguistic realizations
|
Warring Parties |
Political leaders and combatants prepare themselves to attack or defend their viewpoints. |
|
Attack |
A fateful conflict arose between Agamemnon, son of Atreus and king of the people, and Achilles the brave, born of the lineage of gods. |
|
Defense |
Let one of us stand beside Achilles in turn, supporting his strength and valor. |
|
Retreat |
Now it compels me to return to Argos, shamed by having led so many men to ruin. |
|
Maneuver |
For all power and strength belong to him [Zeus]. |
|
Counterattack |
[Achilles to Agamemnon]: In arduous and fervent endeavors, it is my arms that accomplish the great deeds. But when it comes to the division of spoils, the best share is yours. |
|
Ceasefire/ Victory/ Defeat |
"O Greeks, hold your hands, cast not your arrows; it appears that brave Hector wishes to speak with us." |
Source: (See Lakoff and Johnson, 2021).
Research Findings
Quantitative Findings
From the corpus of the twenty-four hymns in the Iliad, approximately 152,640 words were analyzed, revealing that metaphors constitute about 13% of the text. Using qualitative data analysis software, 565 codes were extracted, transformed into concepts, and ultimately categorized into eight stages. The frequency of linguistic metaphors is as follows: Enemy (204), Commander (143), Battlefield (93), Revenge (5), Ambush (29), Destruction and Devastation (98), and Victory (152).
Discussion: Homer’s Conceptualization of Politics
The political realm possesses a relational nature, and politics, as the intersection of the philosophical and the political (or theory and practice), becomes a domain where diverse and multifaceted potentialities of human existential and political life are actualized. Accordingly, political science not only involves the theoretical study of how the political system operates but also pursues a practical goal oriented toward achieving a good and just life in the political community.
In this context, Greek warriors such as Achilles and Odysseus make distinct life choices between the grandeur of life and death on the battlefield or a comfortable life with longevity. One chooses to die in battle for revenge and glory, leading to a short life (Iliad, 22:478; Odyssey, 3:604), while the other, through cunning and stratagem (Odyssey, 1:573), opts for a long life. In other words, the eternal glory of battle and the return home represent two modes of life or the dichotomy between “reality” and “value.” Thus, Homer, in the Iliad and the Odyssey, strives to depict these two ways of life, oscillating between “politics” and the “political.”
Conclusion
The conceptualization of politics and embodied cognition represents a dynamic relationship and an interactive state with the physical, social, and cultural environment. Additionally, the conceptualization of politics and embodied cognition is problem-oriented, operating in relation to existing needs, interests, and values, and utilizing theological and mundane techniques for persuasion, modeling, and comprehension. Furthermore, the theoretical and practical consequences of the metaphor of war correspond to praxis in a conceptual sense. Homer does not view theory and practice, or in other words, politics and the political, as entirely separate and distinct; prior to the centrality of "political philosophy" in the works of Plato and Aristotle, these two aspects were not distinguished from one another. This is because "theoria," or the activity of theorizing, and political participation each represented forms of praxis, albeit in limited ways. In Aristotelian terms, the political sphere is manifested within the second mode of life in ancient Greek society, confined to "political praxis." In this mode, "practical" or "political" life is the way of life of the politician or commander, located within the course of destiny and the everyday concerns of the polis. This mode has a temporary, human, potential, dynamic nature, framed within a "relational identity" (us/them and friend/enemy). In contrast, in politics—which, in Heideggerian terms, has an ontic nature and is defined by its empirical realm—it is eternal and unchanging. For this reason, the political represents the antagonistic and conflictual dimension of the public sphere. To further elucidate this concept in the terms of Hannah Arendt, political action occupies a prominent position in the society of Homeric heroism. A person who acts as a responsible member of the polis never reaches "an end" in their action, because every political act requires "others" [relational identity, the friend/enemy antagonism between Troy and the Achaeans]. However, the heroes can, at any moment, achieve their objective, which is "to act" as the "good human." On the other hand, the polis serves as the "stage" where individuals display their talents and present themselves in the public eye.
Shame, or aidôs, in the public sphere, and the protection of the city while combating enemies, reduces "politics" to "force," as courage, duty, and a sense of pride are connected to their actions. Therefore, the most critical discourse in Homer occurs in the ninth book of the Iliad, where Phoenix speaks to Achilles, using the metaphorical language of the art of war (action, political praxis, and the antagonistic dimension of the political) and rhetoric (politics and theorization). Thus, the Iliad reflects war and, in a way, praxis and action, which is enacted with the aim of antagonizing the existing order and opening possibilities for life.
Keywords: Conceptual Metaphor, George Lakoff, Conceptualization of Politics, War, Iliad.
References
Croft, William and Alan Cruse (2019) Cognitive Linguistics, translated by Jahanshah Mirzabeigi, Tehran: Agah. [In Persian]
Heywood, Andrew (2021) Politics, translated by Abdolrahman Alem, 10th edition, Tehran: Nei. [In Persian]
Homer (2014) The Iliad and The Odyssey, translated by Saeed Nafisi, 2nd edition, Tehran: Hermes. [In Persian]
Kövecses, Zoltán (2019) Metaphor: A Practical Introduction, translated by Jahanshah Mirzabeigi, 3rd edition, Tehran: Agah. [In Persian]
Kövecses, Zoltán (2020) Language, Mind, and Culture: A Practical and Useful Introduction, translated by Jahanshah Mirzabeigi, 3rd edition, Tehran: Agah. [In Persian]
Lakoff, George and Mark Johnson (2021) Metaphors We Live By; with an Appendix on Contemporary Metaphor Theory, translated by Jahanshah Mirzabeigi, 4th edition, Tehran: Agah. [In Persian]
Lakoff, George and Mark Turner (2020) More Than Cool Reason: A Field Guide to Poetic Metaphor, translated by Mona Babaei, Tehran: Neviseh Parsi. [In Persian]
Litosseliti, Lia (2017) Research Methods in Linguistics, translated by Maryam-Sadat Fayyazi, Rasht: University of Gilan. [In Persian]
Schmitt, Carl (2021) The Concept of the Political, translated by Soheil Safari, 4th edition, Tehran: Negah Moaser. [In Persian]
* Ph.D Political Science (Political Thoughts), Ferdowsi University of Mashhad, Iran.
seyedhashem.moniri@mail.um.ac.ir
** Associate Professor Political Science, Ferdowsi University of Mashhad, Iran.
*** Associate Professor Political Science, Ferdowsi University of Mashhad, Iran.
**** Assistant Professor Political Science, Ferdowsi University of Mashhad, Iran.
